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* 























AN INTRODUCTION TO 

THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


BY 

WILLIAM P. TRENT 

\\ 

PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 


CHARLES L. HANSON 

MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON 


WILLIAM T. BREWSTER 

PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



GINN AND COMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 


COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY WILLIAM P. TRENT 
CHARLES L. HANSON, AND WILLIAM T. BREWSTER 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
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GINN AND COMPANY • PRO¬ 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 

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*V 



PREFACE 


The purpose of this book is to stimulate, in teachers and 
students alike, interest in the English Classics selected for use 
in schools, and to suggest various methods by which these 
masterpieces may be profitably studied. The book embodies 
the actual experience of teachers in the classroom, in that the 
analyses of most of the volumes studied and the accompanying 
questions have been prepared by men and women who have 
themselves edited one or more of the Classics and have actually 
taught them. The work of these collaborators has been brought 
into some uniformity of method, but without injuring, it is 
hoped, the suggestiveness and variety and particular method 
of each contributor. 

In accordance with this plan, Part One gives a brief dis¬ 
cussion of the value of literature in general and of the particular 
place in English literature of certain works ordinarily used for 
college entrance examinations. The keynote of the part is the 
encouragement offered the teacher. Part Two contains a de¬ 
tailed study of the so-called English Classics, arranging them 
in groups corresponding in the main with those in the announce¬ 
ments of the College Entrance Examination Board. It must be 
understood that the chief purpose of the questions in Part Two 
is to furnish methods and suggestions for gaining some knowl¬ 
edge of the books treated, and that these questions may be 
curtailed or supplemented as much as any teacher deems wise. 
References in this part are to the Standard English Classics 
Series published by Ginn and Company, but there is no reason 
why the material furnished should not be used in connection 
with any other series. 


iii 


IV 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


It is hoped that later a third part can be added, which will 
contain a less specific analysis of the methods of studying liter¬ 
ature, in order that this book may serve not only as an intro¬ 
duction to particular Classics, but as an introduction to reading 
in general. It is planned to publish this third part separately as 
well as in conjunction with the two parts here included. 

The short list of books at the end is for the use of teachers 
and students who desire suggestions for wider reading. It 
aims in no way to include all the books " that every one ought 
to read,” or that "are indispensable to culture.” It is simply 
a list of many accessible works which a teacher or pupil may 
use for supplementary or summer reading, and it is of course 
capable of indefinite extension. 


CONTENTS 


/ 

PART ONE 

PAGE 

APPROACHING THE CLASSICS i 

PART TWO 

STUDIES OF TYPICAL CLASSICS 

GROUP 

I. NOVELS AND ROMANCES 

The Vicar of Wakefield.43 

IVANHOE .47 

Quentin Durward. 50 

The House of the Seven Gables.54 

The Last of the Mohicans. 59 

David Copperfield.62 

A Tale of Two Cities.66 

Henry Esmond.69 

Cranford.73 

Silas Marner.76 

Lorna Doone.81 

Treasure Island.86 

II. POEMS CHIEFLY NARRATIVE 

^Selections from the "Faerie Queene”.91 

Paradise Lost, Books I and II .93 

"The Rape of the Lock,” and Other Poems. ... 97 

^Selections from Byron.100 

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner >.106 

The Lady of the Lake .in 


v 



















vi THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 

GROUP PAGE 

The Vision of Sir Launfal.114 

The Courtship of Miles Standish. 118 

Lays of Ancient Rome.121 

SOHRAB AND RuSTUM. 126 

^^Selections from the Idylls of the King .... 130 

Selections from Browning.133 

The Iliad and the Odyssey.137 

The ALneid.143 

III. DRAMATIC POETRY 

A Shakespeare Bibliography.. . 148 

Macbeth.150 

As You Like It.157 

Julius Caesar.161 

Twelfth Night.167 

King Henry the Fifth.171 

The Merchant of Venice.177 

A Midsummer Night’s Dream.183 

Comus.186 

IV. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE PROSE EXCLU¬ 

SIVE OF THE NOVEL 

The Pilgrim’s Progress.190 

The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers.194 

The Sketch Book ..197 

Irving’s Life of Goldsmith.200 

Essays of Elia.201 

The Revolt of the Tartars. 205 

Macaulay’s "Lord Clive” and "Warren Hastings” 208 

' Macaulay’s Life of Johnson.210 

The Oregon Trail.216 

Walden.220 

225 


*v"An Inland Voyage” and "Travels with a Donkey” 



























CONTENTS 


vii 

GROUP PAGE 

V. DESCRIPTIVE AND LYRIC POETRY 
/. DESCRIPTIVE POETRY 

^►The Deserted Village.230 

Snow-Bound. 233 

II. LYRIC POETRY 

Representative Poems of Robert Burns. (See Car¬ 
lyle’s Essay on Burns, p. 268.) 

Lycidas .237 

"L’Allegro” and "II Penseroso”.239 

^^-'Gray’s Elegy.241 

"The Raven” and Other Selections from Poe . . 244 
Selections from Browning. (See p. 133.) 

VI. EXPOSITORY AND ARGUMENTATIVE PROSE 

Burke’s Conciliation with the Colonies .... 248 
Washington’s "Farewell Address” and Webster’s 

"First Bunker Hill Oration”.263 

v—cC arlyle’s Essay on Burns ..268 

Emerson’s Essays.274 

Sesame and Lilies.279 

.English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century . 283 
Selections from Huxley.287 


LIST OF BOOKS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING . 291 

INDEX OF TITLES.297 

INDEX OF AUTHORS.298 





































































































INTRODUCTION TO 
THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 







; 















■ 










































PART ONE 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 

I 

1. The Study of Literature. Some years ago, particularly in 
England, there was considerable opposition to any formal study 
of English literature in schools and colleges. The word " study,” 
as its derivation shows, implies zeal for its object and involves 
conscious effort. The word "literature” carries with it the no¬ 
tion of the pleasure that attends the reading of interesting 
and charming books. Between conscious effort and pleasure 
there appears to be more of a real opposition than many earnest 
teachers and students might at first be willing to admit; and it 
was probably the perception of this fact that caused the protest 
against any formal study of literature, to which reference has 
been made. How may this opposition between conscious effort 
and pleasure be best put out of the way, or surmounted, or 
passed by? 

For our answer let us turn to experience rather than to theory. 
For many years the schools of America have been using, in their 
classes devoted to English and American literature, select works 
of widely recognized excellence, called for convenience English 
Classics. These Classics have been divided into two groups, — 
those designed for " study ” and those designed for " reading.” In 
actual practice, since pupils are examined on both sets of books, 
this distinction between books for reading and books for study 
is often overlooked. It remains true, however, that by far 
the larger portion of the literature which our school children 
meet with is intentionally excluded from the books they are 


i 


2 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


required to study, and in this larger portion all the forms of 
literature best adapted to give pleasure to readers have been 
represented in books which experience has shown to be likely 
to make a particularly attractive appeal. Those pioneer educa¬ 
tors who selected the first groups of Classics seem to have 
tried to get around rather than to remove the difficulty we are 
considering. They recognized the need of training young peo¬ 
ple to become careful readers, — that is, students of the most 
important classics in our literature, — wisely selecting our two 
greatest poets, Shakespeare and Milton, and two very im¬ 
portant but differing representatives of our prose, Burke and 
Macaulay. Then they selected a body of literature to serve as 
material for reading as well as for discussion and for themes 
for writing, — in short, to stimulate and develop the taste for 
literature in teacher and pupil alike. This body of literature 
intended for reading as opposed to study has been subsequently 
much enlarged, while the material for study has been kept fairly 
constant. May we not draw from these facts the conclusion 
that the difficulties resulting from the opposition that exists 
between " study ” and " literature ” may be lessened if we grasp 
firmly, so to speak, both horns of the dilemma, — teach children 
to study some books and trust them to enjoy others ? We should 
all, teachers and pupils alike, make conscientious efforts to study 
as widely and deeply as we can a few great literary works, and 
we should also surrender ourselves as freely as we may to the 
pleasures that may be expected to accompany intelligent but 
not painfully concentrated reading of a number and variety of 
well-selected books. 

2 . What is Literature ? The opposition between " study ” 
and " literature ” is not the only difficulty that confronts us. It 
is also difficult to know both what literature is and what is 
literature; that is to say, to define the art and to distinguish 
clearly between writings that have literary merit and those that 
have not. Many definitions of literature have been proposed, 
but none appears to have been generally accepted as satisfac¬ 
tory. Fortunately, however, certain facts about literature are 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


3 


usually received as true, and by putting these facts together we 
are enabled to arrive at a working definition sufficient for prac¬ 
tical purposes. Although in very ancient times all literature 
was oral, and in less ancient times most literature circulated 
in manuscript, to-day we need count as literature only such 
compositions as are put into print. This is one limitation of 
importance. Another is, that such printed compositions as are 
intended to answer purposes merely temporary — for example, 
newspapers, almanacs, controversial pamphlets, and the like — 
are excluded from literature as We use the word when we 
speak of studying it, unless some special qualities displayed 
in them serve to give them a permanent value. The speeches 
of Cicero and the pamphlets of Swift and the messages and 
letters of Lincoln exhibit so many excellencies of style and 
matter that they rank high as literature; but they and things 
like them are exceptions that prove the rule. Literature for our 
purpose, then, must be printed and of permanent value. But 
as scientific treatises, which are certainly not literature, are 
printed and of permanent value, we must proceed to explain 
the phrase " permanent value ” ; and here we encounter a real 
difficulty. Are all compositions the value of which depends 
primarily upon the information they convey and the practical — 
especially the didactic — purposes for which they are used, to 
be excluded, without a second thought, from literature ? Some 
persons would at once answer Yes; others would hesitate; 
others would flatly answer No. 

3 . Value in Literature. It seems impossible for any person 
unerringly and positively to define the term " value ” as it is 
used in connection with literature. Different epochs, different 
classes of men in the same epoch, individuals at different stages 
in their lives, apply varying standards of value. Much informa¬ 
tion was conveyed in verse by the early poets of Greece, and 
equally didactic poems scarcely readable to-day seem to have 
delighted some people in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eight¬ 
eenth centuries. What we regard as tedious allegories and 
absurd and interminable romances have charmed generations 


4 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


not plainly inferior to our own in intelligence and taste. Poets 
whom our great-grandfathers enjoyed in their entirety we toler¬ 
ate only in selections. Pamphlets like those of Milton, Marvell, 
and Defoe, which yield literary pleasure to a reader here and 
there, are totally neglected by the public. Some people regard 
Blackstone’s "Commentaries of the Laws of England” as litera¬ 
ture, so excellent is their style ; others practically refuse to accept 
as literature of real value most of the poetry produced in Eng¬ 
land during the century that gave us the famous "Commen¬ 
taries.” Many a man who in his youth read with enthusiasm 
the poetry of Shelley wonders in his maturity what he found 
to admire in such visionary stuff, and derives his chief literary 
pleasure from reading histories, memoirs, and essays. Novelists 
who are considered by a small group of readers and critics to rank 
among the very greatest writers of our generation, if not of all 
time, are fairly lucky if a few thousand copies of their books 
can be sold, while men and women of very slight literary ability, 
whose novels critics deem unworthy of serious discussion, se¬ 
cure without difficulty hundreds of thousands of devoted readers. 

4. Permanent Value in Literature. But some one will say: 
"We are not concerned with value that is fluctuating, but only 
with value that is permanent. The adjective will help us.” Per¬ 
haps so, but how much ? There is no literary reputation that is 
absolutely secure and unchangeable and current with all classes 
of men. There are intelligent people who find little to admire 
in the poems of Homer or the plays of Shakespeare. Dante 
went through a long period of detraction in Italy; many Eng¬ 
lishmen and Americans take the greatness of Spenser and Mil- 
ton on faith, or else try in vain to read them. On the other hand, 
there are students of literature who are continually employed 
in re-reading with the greatest possible literary satisfaction the 
works of Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and Milton — one or all 
of them — and are totally unmoved by the vogue of many highly 
distinguished modern writers such as, let us say, Mr. Kipling, 
Mr. Henry James, M. Rostand, and Signor D’Annunzio. In a 
sense, the work of the older writers just named is indisputably 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


5 


permanent, and that of the modem writers may become per¬ 
manent ; but we must not suppose that in literature the term 
" permanent ” involves the ideas of universality and incontesta¬ 
bility. The tastes, desires, and needs of men are almost infinite, 
and they vary from generation to generation and from stage to 
stage in the life of the individual. Even the roll of the oncom¬ 
ing tide of the ocean, which is a sublimely inspiring spectacle to 
one man, palls upon and depresses another. 

5 . A Working Definition of Literature. It does not follow, 
however, that our ideas with regard to value in literature must 
resemble chaos. Literature is practically understood to include 
for the purposes of study all printed compositions which have 
made a pleasurable appeal of some sort to a fairly definite and 
not inconsiderable body of readers throughout a space of time 
sufficiently ample to allow opinion to become adequately settled. 
Strictly contemporary works, what are called " books of the 
hour,” are rarely studied, save occasionally for the purposes of 
classes in English composition, mainly because, while many of 
them may possess literary value which has a chance to become 
permanent, they have not been long enough before the public 
for us to be sure that the pleasure they give us has any of the 
elements of permanence. Sometimes the very essence of the 
pleasure such contemporary books afford is their timeliness, and, 
when a little later they are re-read, we are left wondering what we 
could possibly have found in them to enjoy. Occasionally, how¬ 
ever, a contemporary book which fails to yield pleasure may, on 
a re-reading, afford considerable enjoyment. Its charm or power 
is unobtrusive and for some reason unobserved save by a few 
readers, but it slowly wins admiration and finally attains a good 
or a high rank in literature. In either case, whether the book 
speedily secures a wide and favorable attention or comes to its 
own only after the lapse of years, the constant and necessary 
element of its success as literature with qualified judges is its 
power to give a pleasure which is always in part aesthetic, — 
that is, a pleasure which results from our perception of something 
beautiful . 


6 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


6 . Pleasure in Literature. The term " pleasure,” which is so 
essential to our working definition of literature, is plainly a very 
indefinite one, even when it is qualified by the epithet”aesthetic.” 
We may be sure that no composition is likely to attain the rank 
of literature in the opinion of any large body of readers, if it 
does not please the ear by its harmony and the mind by its 
clearness and by the symmetry or harmonious arrangement of 
its constituent parts; in other words, it will not be regarded 
as good literature if it does not appeal to the sense of beauty 
in these essential respects (cf. § 14 ). But we may also be sure 
that it will not attain a high and permanent and generally 
acknowledged rank if it does not at the same time give satisfy¬ 
ing play to emotions connected with our sense for truth and our 
sense for goodness. These appeals — to our sense for beauty 
in sound and beauty in symmetry as perceived by the intellect, 
and to our sense for truth and for moral excellence — may be 
answered by works the primary purpose of which is to convey 
information; and hence it is that historical, biographical, philo¬ 
sophical, and scientific writings may sometimes constitute im¬ 
portant contributions to literature. Boswell’s ” Life of Johnson,” 
Buckle’s ” History of Civilization,” and Mill’s ” Principles of 
Political Economy” are standard books of information which 
the catholic-minded historian of English literature will not omit 
to consider. 

It must be added, however, that from time immemorial com¬ 
positions in which the imagination and fancy of the writer have 
fuller scope to work than is usually possible when his primary 
purpose is to convey valuable truths or to stimulate the moral 
nature, have been accorded the highest rank in literature by 
the majority of readers and critics. Epic poems and novels 
and dramas afford more of aesthetic pleasure than histories and 
sermons. The fact that some sacred writings, for example, the 
Book of Job, convey truths, stimulate the moral and religious 
emotions, and at the same time yield noble aesthetic pleasures 
should be regarded, not as contradicting the statement just 
made, but as furnishing an exception to it. It remains true that 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


7 


a free use of the creative imagination enables a writer to attain 
high harmonies of sound and exquisite or noble symmetry of 
form, as well as to set before his reader scenes of natural beauty, 
historical picturesqueness, and dramatic interest, or else to stir 
the heart by appeals to sentiment and passion in a far more 
effective way and to a greater extent than is possible in those 
forms of literature in which imagination must of necessity play 
a restrained part. For example, a scholarly book dealing with 
ancient Troy may present much valuable information, and, if the 
writer possesses imagination, may transport us into primitive 
times and deeply interest us; but it cannot give us the kind or 
the amount of pleasure that is afforded by the "Iliad,” "with its 
rolling rhythm, its stirring action, its heroic characters, its im¬ 
pressive scenes, its large simple truth to nature, and its charm 
of the far-off past.” 


II 

7 . Poetry and Prose. It is imaginative literature, then, with 
which teachers and pupils have most to do, and this falls, as, 
speaking strictly, all literature does, into the two divisions of 
poetry and prose. These divisions are sharply separated only 
in one way. Poetry is literature couched in measured language; 
that is, it is literature which consists of words arranged metri¬ 
cally. Prose is literature in which there is no metrical arrange¬ 
ment of words. Both poetry and prose, to be worthy of the 
names,—to escape being mere doggerel or worthless or merely 
temporary combinations of words,—must display the character¬ 
istics demanded of real literature; they must appeal in a pleasur¬ 
able way to our sense for beauty, our sense for truth, our 
sense for goodness. But poetry must always make its appeal to 
our sense for beauty in sound through the use*of measured 
language, which yields special effects of harmony. Prose se¬ 
cures its effects of harmony through less fettered combinations 
of words. As words arranged metrically are called verse, we 
may say that poetry is literature in verse, while prose is 


8 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


literature not in verse. Critics have attempted to make other 
distinctions between poetry and prose, but, while some of these 
distinctions are useful, none is of such universal application as 
to require discussion here. It should be added that, just as cer¬ 
tain forms of life seem to stand midway between the animal 
and vegetable kingdoms, so there are forms of literature, for 
example, many of the writings of Walt Whitman, which seem 
to occupy a more or less indeterminate position when we en¬ 
deavor to classify them as poetry or prose according to the test 
of measured language. 

8 . The Encroachments of Prose. Although there is no ab¬ 
solute rule by which a writer may determine whether he should 
say what he has to say in poetry or should choose prose instead, 
it is generally true that themes demanding a highly imaginative 
treatment and making a profoundly emotional appeal will as¬ 
sume a poetical form. For example, a dramatist selecting a 
theme of heroic tragedy, especially one lying in the remote past, 
would have been almost certain, before our day, to write a poeti¬ 
cal tragedy, and would .still be tempted to do it. There can be 
no question, however, that prose has been and is steadily en¬ 
croaching upon poetry. The literature of information and of 
teaching is now, with scarcely an exception, couched in prose. 
Prose has gained upon poetry in the drama, and, in the form 
of fiction, — whether in short story, tale, novel, or romance, — 
it has undertaken to perform most of the functions of the epic, 
the narrative poem, and the idyl or descriptive poem. It can 
even take the place of the short lyric or reflective poem, al¬ 
though in this domain of utterance the poet is still supreme. 
When, in addition to these facts, we consider that the orator, the 
historian, the biographer, the philosopher, the critic, the essayist, 
the theologian, the scientist, and the miscellaneous writer do 
their work through the medium of prose, we perceive that 
probably the encroachment of prose upon poetry constitutes the 
most important single fact in the history of literature. 

9 . The Supremacy of Poetry. Despite the encroachments of 
prose, it is plain that in the main, according to our definition to 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


9 


of literature, the world’s greatest literary possessions are a few 
poems of the past, and that the supreme names among writers 
are those of poets. The " Iliad” and the " Odyssey,” the dramas 
of ^Eschylus and Sophocles, the "yEneid,” the " Divine Comedy,” 
the tragedies of Shakespeare, "Paradise Lost,” and "Faust,”— 
these are poems, and the names of their authors are held in 
special veneration. Occasionally a critic ventures to add the 
name of a prose writer to this eminent group, — for example, 
the great French novelist, Honore de Balzac, has been ranked 
by some of his admirers along with Shakespeare,—but thus far 
little attention has been paid to these claims. Of the better-known 
literatures, only the Spanish has for its chief classic a work in 
prose — " Don Quixote ”; for the great comedies of Molibre, 
who is probably the supreme classical writer of France, take in 
some cases the form of verse, whether or not we usually think of 
him as an eminent poet. This supremacy of poetry over prose 
obviously holds good only in the domain of the national classics. 
It is a supremacy to which modem lips often bear a testimony 
not corroborated by modern hearts; it may at any time dis¬ 
appear on account of the steady advance of prose in power and 
scope and popular appeal; but it is a fact of literary history and 
present experience, and it should always be borne in mind by 
teachers and students. " The great poetical classics are, thus 
far, the world’s chief storehouses of noble thought and feeling. 
The supreme poets are, of all mortals, our most satisfying and 
unfailing sources of instruction and delight.” 

10 . The Classes of Poetry. The body of literature written 
in measured language and distinguished by the name of poetry 
is usually treated under a convenient system of classification 
practically derived from the Greeks. There are five or six large 
divisions of poetry which carry out five or six distinct and im¬ 
portant purposes for which poetry may be written. They are 
(i) Epic Poetry or Narrative Poetry, in which the poet’s prime 
object is to unfold a series of events,—that is, to narrate some¬ 
thing which, in the case of the epic proper, must be of world or 
racial or national importance ; (2) Dramatic Poetry, in which 


IO 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


the poet’s prime object is to present characters in action—usu¬ 
ally upon a stage; (3) Lyric Poetry, in which the poet’s prime 
object is to express either his personal thoughts and feelings or 
thoughts and feelings that are the c ommon property of a gen¬ 
eration or a people or a class; ((4) Idyllic Poetry, in which the 
poet’s prime object is to describe a phase of life or a scene in 
which the dramatic element of action is not predominant 11 ( 5 ) 
Didactic Poetry, in which the poet’s prime object is to Incite to 
duty and to convey instruction in a manner not incompatible 
with the fundamental purpose of all poetry to yield aesthetic 
pleasure. It is usual to add a sixth class (6), Satiric Poetry, in 
which the poet’s prime object is to ridicule and chastise his fel¬ 
low men for their crimes and follies. Yet, in the last analysis, 
the didactic element is so strong in satiric poetry that it seems 
scarcely necessary to treat it by itself. Arnold’s " Sohrab and 
Rustum,” Shakespeare’s " Macbeth,” Palgrave’s "Golden Treas¬ 
ury,” Goldsmith’s "Deserted Village,” and Pope’s " Rape of the 
Lock ” represent among the Classics now or until recently 
taught in our schools the five chief classes of poetry in the 
order given above. If we accept satiric poetry as a sixth class, 
it is under that that we must include " The Rape of the 
Lock,” and we shall not be surprised to learn that none of 
the poems now usually studied in our schools represents strictly 
the class of poetry denominated didactic. The reason is obvi¬ 
ous. Modern readers of poetry tend to emphasize its aesthetic 
elements more than their fathers did. 

11 . The Chief Classes of Prose. It has not been practicable 
to divide prose into classes as clearly defined as those of poetry ; 
yet it admits of division into several important and easily recog¬ 
nized classes. Five of these may be briefly described in the 
present section. Corresponding with the Epic, we have (1) 
Prose Fiction, including the novel of manners, romances of 
various kinds, novelettes, short stories; and (2) History, the 
record of the achievements of humanity in organized society, 
which falls into a large number of subdivisions, according as 
emphasis is laid upon politics, war, industry, art and letters, and 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


I 


the like. Complementary to History is (3) Biography (including 
Autobiography), the record of the life of a single man who in 
some way or ways appears to have distinguished himself. A 
fourth class of prose (4), the Essay, is very varied in character. 
In form it is usually brief; in style, easy, discursive, and engag¬ 
ing; in substance, confined to a phase of its subject or else 
presenting a general sketch of it. The essay may trench on the 
fields of history, biography, and fiction; it may perform some 
of the functions of lyric and idyllic poetry by giving expression 
to moods, and by attempting descriptions of all sorts; it may 
be designed to give information in numerous fields, for example, 
criticism, philosophy, and travel; it may incite to noble conduct 
or act as a deterrent to vice and folly. Such a changing form of 
literature obviously defies definition, yet it may be fairly said 
that the prime function of the true essayist — such an essayist, 
let us say, as Addison in his ''Spectator” papers —is to com¬ 
ment upon life, particularly upon its superficial aspects. Corre¬ 
sponding with the Essay in its brevity and to a certain extent 
in its wide range is (5) the Oration, which in its less elevated 
types appears as the Address or the Speech. The Oration differs 
fundamentally from the Essay in that it avoids superficial and 
pleasant comment and that it is rarely discursive; that is, that it 
devotes itself with "high seriousness” and with firm consistency 
to the task of persuading the human will to a noble or at least 
creditable course of action. 1 

12 . Supplementary Classes of Prose. It is clear that the five 
classes of prose just described are far from exhausting the forms 
prose literature may take. But that they are in a certain sense 
the chief forms from the point of view of literary fame may be 
inferred from the fact that they furnish special names to the men 
who write them and also special names for types of composition. 
The words " novelist ” and " novel,” " historian ” and " history,” 

1 Sometimes the word " discourse ” is used to cover the oration, the address, 
the speech, the sermon, the lecture. The sermon and the lecture, however, fre¬ 
quently resemble an essay that is read aloud. As we are considering literature 
that is written and read, it seems best to emphasize the manner and purpose of 
writing rather than the circumstances of composition and delivery. 


12 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


"biographer” and " biography,” " essayist ” and essay,” "ora¬ 
tor ” and " oration,” are clearly understood without any further 
qualification. We do have the words " philosopher ” and " trav¬ 
eler,” and some volumes of philosophy and of travels belong 
undoubtedly to literature; but we tend to view their authors as 
thinkers and men of action rather than as men of letters. This 
is also true of such historians as Stubbs and Ranke; but other 
historians, for instance, Macaulay and Parkman, are plainly men 
of letters as well. When, therefore, we use the words " treatise,” 
" book,” or " volume,” followed by a descriptive phrase not taken 
from one of the five classes just enumerated, — for we do speak 
of a volume of essays, — we generally refer to one of the sup¬ 
plementary and often nonliterary classes of prose, such as phi¬ 
losophy, theology, law, economics, sociology, the sciences, travel 
and adventure, philology and technical criticism. 

One class of prose, which in single specimens seldom attains 
the rank of literature, may, when collected and presented in 
mass, take a very high rank. This is the class formed by the 
letters or correspondence of such interesting men as Gray, 
Cowper, Horace Walpole, Byron, Lowell, and Stevenson. It 
need not, perhaps, be considered as forming one of the chief 
classes of prose, because it is so frequently combined with 
biography and autobiography that it is more conveniently treated 
as a branch of them; but sometimes even a single letter be¬ 
comes an important contribution to literature, as, for instance, 
Dr. Johnson’s to Lord Chesterfield. In like manner editorials 
are sometimes gathered into volumes of literary value. Most 
editorial writers, however, like the writers of political pamphlets 
in the eighteenth century, usually take rank with the journalists 
rather than with men of letters. 

Permanent value in which the element of aesthetic appeal is 
at least fairly strong is demanded of the prose that is admitted 
to a place in literature, and it is perhaps more difficult for 
the prose writer, and certainly much more difficult for the jour¬ 
nalist, to satisfy this demand than it is for the poet. It will be 
observed that of the English Classics to be taught for the years 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 13 

I 9 I 3 _I 9 I 5 entire third group of eleven volumes is taken 
from the first of the classes of prose, namely, fiction, and that 
in a sense the " Pilgrim’s Progress ” and the " Sir Roger de Cov- 
erley Papers ” might have been transferred to that group from 
the fourth. The remaining eleven volumes of the latter group 
represent the essay, the critical lecture (Thackeray’s " English 
Humorists”), the oration, autobiography, travel, popular science, 
and a type of prose which has become sufficiently important of 
late to constitute a special class, — what we call loosely " nature 
books,” for example, Thoreau’s ” Walden.” 

Ill 

13. Reading. The poetical and prose " classics ” mentioned 
in the preceding sections were written to be read, not to be 
studied. They were designed for readers who would probably 
require, in order to comprehend them, no outside help save such 
as is afforded by a work of reference like the dictionary, and 
such help only occasionally. In other words, these books were 
written for more or less mature and cultivated readers qualified 
by nature and training to understand and sympathise with the 
authors. Such a presumption holds to-day in the case of most 
books save those specially written for the young. But it is' 
obvious that thoroughly qualified readers are few and far be¬ 
tween. In the first place, a very large number of people spend 
most of their time in occupations that yield them little leisure 
to read at all, and when they do read, they usually pick up a 
newspaper or a magazine or a novel that does not require 
close attention. Millions of men and women who lead useful 
and agreeable lives never think of reading a book that, strictly 
speaking, belongs to literature. In the next place, most people 
who may properly be called readers are limited in their tastes 
and training. Their interest extends only to a class or a few 
classes of modern books, and their education and occupation 
do not permit them to cultivate and extend whatever taste for 
reading they may have been born with. It would therefore seem 


4 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


follow that the most fundamental and difficult task of teachers 
— not of English only, but of any subject — is to determine how 
they can best stimulate in their pupils the desire to read, and 
how they can best train them to bring their intellectual and 
emotional powers adequately to bear upon their reading. In 
some cases teachers can count upon an inherited bent for read¬ 
ing; in others they may be sure that the example of cultured 
parents and friends will at least enable their pupils to perceive 
that a taste for reading is worth cultivating; but in a majority 
of cases they can rely on no such support. Their appeal must 
be made mainly to native capacity, and their chief reliance must 
be upon the charm and power exerted by the literature to which 
it is their privilege to introduce their scholars. Nevertheless, 
through the contagion of their own enthusiasm for the best 
books, and through the application of common sense and peda¬ 
gogical faculties to the problem, they may hope to accomplish 
much with specially endowed pupils and something even with 
the most backward. Only a few, and those very general, direc¬ 
tions can be given to aid them in their task. 

14. Teaching How to Read. As one of the most important 
characteristics of literature is its attractive appeal to the ear, it 
seems plain that the practice of reading with the inner ear should 
be encouraged as far as possible by constant reading aloud in 
class and by advice to sound, if possible, all words to the inner 
ear in silent reading, especially of poetry. Reading by the eye 
alone secures rapidity and may enable one to appreciate much 
of the beauty and power of a piece of writing; but beauty " at 
one entrance ” is " quite shut out,” and this ought not to be. 
Even very young children are pleasurably affected by rhythm and 
rhyme, and to trained readers they often yield the most subtle 
delights. How much delight, for example, would have been lost 
to readers young and old if Browning had described in a prose 
sketch the stirring event which forms the subject of his poem 
" How they Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix ” ; if he 
had been debarred the use of the swinging rhythm which cap¬ 
tures our interest and pleases our ears from the very first lines: 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


15 


I sprang to the stirrup, and J oris, and he; 

I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three; 

" Good speed ! ” cried the watch, as the gate-bolts undrew ; 

" Speed! ” echoed the wall to us galloping through; 

Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest, 

And into the midnight we galloped abreast. 

Beauty of structural symmetry, that is to say, the adequate 
construction and the harmonious arrangement of the constituent 
parts of a composition, is not so readily perceived, in fact is 
often perceived only after reflection of a kind and amount not to 
be expected of pupils, especially in the classroom. But the 
teacher may point out such beauty, or perhaps more easily the 
absence of it, in any composition — poem, essay, or prose tale 
— short enough to be read in class ; and pupils thus trained may 
come to be affected, consciously or unconsciously, in their own 
reading by the perception of this kind of beauty. For instance, 
Gray’s " Elegy” will yield many examples of symmetrical beauty, 
notably in the skill with which the poet adjusts the phases of 
his thought one to another and gives to each an adequate state¬ 
ment balanced by sufficient illustrations. 

The appeal to the inner eye made by descriptive writing, the 
appeal to our sense of reality in character and conduct made by 
all classes of writing, particularly by the drama and fiction, the 
appeal to our ideals, individual and social, which is rarely or 
never absent from good literature, may all be judiciously pointed 
out by the teacher and will be perceived in greater and greater 
degree by the pupil as his age increases and his taste for reading 
develops. In pointing out these general features of literature 
the teacher must depend for success chiefly upon the choice 
of his material. Poems written in well-marked rhythms and 
simple stanzas are best suited to immature readers. Scott’s 
"Young Lochinvar” and Longfellow’s "Wreck of the Hespe¬ 
rus” are better poems to begin with than Milton’s "Lycidas” 
and Keats’s "Ode to a Grecian Urn.” Nor is this true for 
metrical reasons only. The emotions to which the poems of 
Milton and Keats make so profound an appeal are more or 


16 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


less undeveloped in very young readers, who, as a rule, are not 
impressed by the extraordinary poetic art of the two writers. 
Choice and suggestive diction, original and felicitously imagina¬ 
tive figures of speech, deft use of poetic devices rich in associa¬ 
tions for readers of wide culture, — these features of the work 
of Milton and Keats render them poets to whom the average 
pupil should be introduced only after a taste for the simpler 
forms of poetry has been developed in him. Fortunately, how¬ 
ever, there are works in which simplicity and richness of both 
form and substance are harmoniously united. For example, 
Arnold’s poem, " Sohrab and Rustum,” although composed in 
blank verse and far from destitute of poetical ornament, is so 
simple in its emotional appeal and so clear in its setting forth 
that little of its effectiveness and beauty is lost even upon inex¬ 
perienced readers. The same thing is true of " Macbeth ” and 
of most or all of the works of fiction included in the Classics 
recommended to schools. We may conclude, then, that with 
choice of the proper material, especially in poetry and fiction, 
and with due attention to beauty of sound and to the simpler 
kinds of appeal made by substance and form, the diligent teacher 
may slowly inculcate in many if not most of his pupils a respect 
and liking for literature, and develop in them a capacity for 
intelligent, sympathetic reading. 

15. Attention to Details in Reading. There is a special point 
with regard to reading in school which seems to deserve some 
notice. In the main, the Classics selected are excellent specimens 
of literary art, and the temptation to the qualified teacher to 
dwell upon details of workmanship is very strong. It follows, 
however, from what was said in the last section, that this 
temptation should at first be stoutly resisted, and that only in 
the last two years of high-school work should a moderate yield¬ 
ing to it be allowed. The main reason for this is, that a capacity 
to feel interest is much more widespread than a capacity to feel 
delight or rapture, and that art appeals primarily to the latter 
rather than to the former. For example, almost any child will 
be interested in the story and the characters of " Macbeth,” 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


1 7 


but very few children are capable of appreciating to the full the 
peculiar qualities of imagination and diction that make Macbeth’s 
speech in Act V, scene 5 , beginning " She should have died 
hereafter,” one of the supreme passages, not only of this play, 
but of Shakespeare’s entire works. The noble beauty of such a 
passage should indeed be pointed out, but a long discussion of 
the poetic quality of the adjective in the phrase " The way to 
dusty death ” should be avoided. 

Perhaps the best way of endeavoring to indicate to the pupil 
the fact that a special passage is nobly poetical is to read it 
aloud with such sympathy that no one can listen without a 
feeling of delight . 1 Some comment upon the ornamental details 
of composition, some explanation of the use of metaphors, 
similes, and other figures of speech, some discussion of the 
historical and geographical setting of a work like " Sohrab and 
Rustum,” and, in special cases, even a little comment on the 
history of the words used and on variations of text may be 
allowed to the discreet teacher, but his chief aim should be so 
to stimulate the interest of his pupils in the larger features of 
the work read that their dominant desire will be to become 
readers on their own account, This is not to say that the 
teacher should not pay close attention to details when it is 
a question of correcting slovenly and inaccurate habits of read¬ 
ing ; it is only a warning against the use of excessively anno¬ 
tated textbooks and the indulgence on the part of the teacher 
in comments critical or scholarly that are likely to mean much 
more to him than to his pupils. It is only in connection with 
the- Classics set apart for special study that such comments 
should be freely indulged in, and even then not to the extent of 
making the pupil subordinate the text to the notes. In other 
words, it should be remembered that, if the pupil acquires the 
habit of reading, he will be almost certain to read with ever 

1 It is greatly to be hoped that no teacher will refrain from reading poetry 
aloud to his classes because of the feeling that he is not a good reader. He 
may not be a trained elocutionist, but some people feel that that is an advantage 
rather than a disadvantage, and if he really enjoys what he reads, he can usually 
give his audience what it craves most, — reading that is at least sympathetic, 


8 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


greater accuracy and appreciation as his age and culture in¬ 
crease, and that to overemphasize the study of details not only is 
not likely to foster a taste for reading, but is likely to discourage 
such a taste if it already exists. In this connection we should 
bear in mind the fact that by the character of our examination 
questions we may easily force pupils to give a disproportionate 
attention to details, with the result that the main object of liter¬ 
ary teaching, to make boys and girls lovers of books, may be 
partly or totally thwarted. We should no more drum and drudge 
a child’s taste out of him than we should flog his spirit out 
of him. Yet do we not do violence to many a child’s tastes 
when we force him to remember the plot of a novel with suf¬ 
ficient accuracy to write an elaborate description of it ? Are we 
duly mindful of the fact that a capacity to forget is often as 
great a blessing as the power to memorize ? As with liberty, so 
with discipline, mental and physical, — many crimes are com¬ 
mitted in its name. 

16. The Choice of Books. Scarcely less important than the 
ability to read with sympathy and intelligence is the ability to 
choose books deserving to be read. The latter capacity is of 
slow development; hence young people need guidance in their 
reading, despite the fact that their innocence often protects them 
against vicious books and their native good taste leads them 
into pleasant and profitable fields of literature. Much excellent 
guidance is furnished by books and essays specially designed to 
aid in the selection of reading, — for example, by Frederic Har¬ 
rison’s stimulating volume entitled " The Choice of Books ” ; 
but only too often habits of superficial and scrappy reading are 
encouraged by popular compilations, and distinguished men do 
harm by prescribing doses of literature much as physicians pre¬ 
scribe medicines. In the last analysis, it is about as presump¬ 
tuous to order another person’s reading as it is to order his life; 
yet in reading, as in life, it is a sign of folly to despise or ignore 
the experience of our elders. Affection and tactful regard 
for others are the best preachers of good conduct and the 
best teachers of good literature, provided the cooperation of 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


19 


intelligence be secured in both cases. In this fact the qualified 
teacher of literature finds his chief excuse for being. He is 
interested in his scholars and he is interested in the books 
that have become, as it were, his friends, and he wishes, for 
no selfish reasons, to bring the two together. If he possesses 
tact, taste, knowledge, and enthusiasm, he can do far more to 
guide and stimulate the reading habits of his pupils than any 
formal critic is likely to do by his writings. 

But what, on the other hand, shall we say of the uninter¬ 
ested and therefore uninteresting and unequipped teacher of 
literature ? Such a teacher cannot possibly be a proper guide 
in the choice of books, and, even when he is using with his 
classes books chosen by others, his work must necessarily be 
perfunctory. Good habits of reading and interest in literature 
are not likely to be acquired in mature years, but they can be 
somewhat cultivated ; and it would seem to be the duty of every 
teacher of English who recognizes his limitations in these re¬ 
spects to do what he can by way of study and wide reading to 
fit himself to become a more competent guide to his pupils. 
He can at least endeavor to read books of recognized merit 
and to avoid frittering away his mind and his time in constantly 
reading newspapers, magazines, and second-rate novels. He 
can study at home instead of trying to acquire information from 
popular lecturers. In other words, he can recognize that good 
teaching implies culture, that culture implies a knowledge of 
the best things that have been written upon the chief concerns 
of life, and that culture is acquired only through study, — that 
it cannot be picked up or absorbed. In proportion, then, as 
they acquire real culture, teachers will be able intelligently to 
guide their pupils in the choice of books. 

17. The Enormous Mass of Literature. But the number of 
good books is so large, the mass of real literature is so enor¬ 
mous, that it seems presumptuous for any teacher to assume the 
functions of a literary guide. That there is an element of truth 
in this complaint, which one often hears expressed, need not be 
denied; but, as we have seen, literary guides are needed, and, 


20 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


after all, the multitude of the books we do not know should not 
make us distrust our knowledge of the good books we have 
studied. The great extent of literature and the consequent lim¬ 
itations to our knowledge of it ought to check our dogmatism 
and our conceit in literary matters, not to dampen our enthu¬ 
siasm as students and teachers. And we should remember two 
facts. The first is that time is an admirable sifter, and that even 
good books which serve no definite present needs, or have been 
surpassed by others in the same field, soon drop out of sight and 
cease to form a necessary part of the equipment of the teacher 
or even of the critic. Such books may never cease to be mate¬ 
rial for scholars and antiquaries, but often they need not be 
even known by name to the mass of literary workers and stu¬ 
dents. The second fact is that year by year the works of schol¬ 
ars and critics facilitate the task of the teacher of literature by 
grouping and describing the books of the past and thus ena¬ 
bling him to pursue his studies with less and less loss of time 
through misdirected efforts. Then again, one’s tastes and one’s 
equipment in foreign tongues are important factors in the ac¬ 
quisition of culture, and the problem that confronts most teach¬ 
ers of English literature practically resolves itself into finding 
the time and developing the desire to read the best poems, 
plays, and novels, together with a few of the best essays, 
biographies, histories, and miscellaneous books that have been 
written in English in the past three hundred and twenty-five 
years. 

This, it is true, is a sufficiently ambitious program in view 
of long school days and multifarious duties, but at least two 
things are certain with regard to it: the less one does of 
this sort of reading, the less qualified one is to teach English 
literature; and the more one dwells upon the impossibility of 
reading all one should read, the less time and disposition one 
has to plunge in and read as many of the best books as one 
can. What matter if one is not equipped with half a dozen lan¬ 
guages and the capacity to enjoy in the original the classics of 
several great literatures in addition to the classics of one’s own 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


21 


literature ? What matter if even the translations of great foreign 
books remain sealed to us ? What matter if we never have an 
opportunity to read our English epic " Beowulf ” in the original, 
and are continually hampered in our enjoyment of Chaucer 
because of our unfamiliarity with the Middle English dialect he 
employed ? There is still left us more than enough good books 
to occupy us profitably and to delight us; let us forthwith begin 
to read them. And if many a crowded day in the school year 
sees us forced to reduce our reading for culture to a bare half 
hour or to a snatched ten minutes, let us do even that small 
amount of reading and be thankful for our brief escape into 
the free world of thought and feeling. Let us not wait for vaca¬ 
tions and holidays or for instructions when and how to begin. 
Not one of us but has some good book on a shelf waiting to be 
read or re-read; down with it as soon as possible. That is the 
reply to make to our querulous reflections with regard to the 
vastness of literature and the scantiness of our opportunities 
and capacities. And let us not despise what we can gain if we 
utilize ten minutes here and there. A certain teacher of English 
is fond of telling his students how he kept up his Greek, and in 
two school years read through the " Iliad,” the " Odyssey,” all 
of Sophocles, and several plays of Euripides mainly by having 
the volumes accessible while he was waiting for his midday 
dinner in a not overpunctual Southern household. • 

18. The Modern Field of Study. We have just seen that it 
is in modem English literature that the field of the teacher’s 
study and reading chiefly lies, and this is, of course, the field 
of his pupils’ work. The period of our literature known as the 
Anglo-Saxon or the Early English is of the utmost importance 
to all students of our language, and contains monuments of 
poetry and prose which well repay reading; but its literature is 
not of supreme excellence, and the time is far distant when all 
teachers of English will be equipped with the linguistic train¬ 
ing necessary to its understanding. Much the same thing is 
true of the large mass of writing done in Latin and Middle 
English during the medieval period. This literature is no longer 


22 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


underestimated and neglected, and the cultivated reader should 
know something of its outlines; but essentially it remains, and 
must always remain, the province of the specialist. Its greatest 
representative, Geoffrey Chaucer, and to a less extent the poets 
Langland and Gower, the anonymous author — or authors — 
of " The Pearl ” and " Gawain and the Green Knight,” the 
travels of Mandeville, the " Morte d’Arthur ” of Sir Thomas 
Mallory, the Scotch poets headed by. Dunbar and Henryson,— 
these are authors and books encountered in college and univer¬ 
sity courses in English, and in some cases read, in the original 
or in modernized forms, by readers seeking general culture. 
But not one of them, not even Chaucer, has yet, save very 
occasionally, been studied in our schools. Perhaps the day may 
come when our first great poet, who is still unmatched for his 
quiet humor, his engaging portrayal of character, and his genial 
gift of story-telling, may be taught in selections to all school 
children; but at present it seems difficult to make room even 
for his great successor, the more modern Spenser, who divides 
with Shakespeare the chief honors of the Elizabethan Age, and 
is the purest and most idealistic of all our poetic masters. Prac¬ 
tically speaking, it is Shakespeare, the most universal of our 
poets and therefore in essential respects a modern writer, who 
alone, in selected plays given in a modernized text, is, of all 
the English writers that flourished before the reign of Charles I, 
studied by school children of to-day in the great English-speak¬ 
ing republic sprung from a colony founded by Englishmen 
about the time his tragedy of " Macbeth ” was being written or 
first performed. 

To be sure, no intelligent teacher of Shakespeare will con¬ 
sider himself properly qualified until he has studied other 
authors of the Elizabethan Age and, in outline at least, the his¬ 
tory of the drama in English and other literatures; but the 
busy teacher can scarcely, if he is to do justice to the entire 
body of the Classics studied in schools, become an Elizabethan 
or a dramatic specialist. It is not even requisite that he become 
a seventeenth- or an eighteenth-century specialist, for while 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


23 


Milton’s minor poems, Bunyan’s " Pilgrim’s Progress,” Addison’s 
"Sir Roger de Coverley Papers,” Defoe’s "Robinson Crusoe,” 
Goldsmith’s " Vicar of Wakefield ” and " Deserted Village,” 
Gray’s " Elegy written in a Country Churchyard,” Franklin’s 
"Autobiography,” Burke’s " Speech on Conciliation,” Washing¬ 
ton’s " Farewell Address,” and Books II and III of Palgrave’s 
" Golden Treasury,” of the Classics soon to be required, fall 
within those centuries, the quality of these works is such that 
most of them can be effectively taught from the point of view 
of their modern interest without great insistence upon those 
features an understanding of which is dependent upon a minute 
knowledge of the literature and history of the age in which they 
were written. 

It is apparent that, in a sense, Dickens’s " Tale of Two 
Cities,” Thackeray’s " Henry Esmond ” and " English Humour¬ 
ists,” and Macaulay’s essays on Clive, Hastings, and Dr. John¬ 
son are closely affiliated with the books that represent the 
eighteenth century, and that, strictly speaking, Coleridge’s 
"Ancient Mariner” belongs with them. But, although the se¬ 
lected Classics are very fairly distributed between the eighteenth 
and the nineteenth centuries, it is quite obvious that the interest 
of most students attaches itself chiefly to the works that most 
nekrly represent the spirit of their own day; and that, if the 
teacher has the time and the inclination to specialize anywhere, 
it is the so-called Georgian and Victorian periods to which, in 
a majority of cases, he will most profitably give his allegiance. 
This is not said with any purpose of disparaging our older 
literature or those kinds of literary scholarship which are 
more or less antiquarian in character. All that is meant is to 
remind teachers who have not been able to acquire the special 
training requisite to the understanding and appreciation of the 
older periods of our literature, that, even with their limitations, 
they have a large and noble body of writings with which to 
occupy their minds and spirits, and that it is precisely this mod¬ 
ern literature that means most to the majority of their pupils. 


M 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


IV 

19. Reading and Memorizing. Taking the Classics recom¬ 
mended for the years 1913 - 1915^6 find that they are divided 
into two unequal groups, — those selected for reading and those 
selected for study. The National Conference which proposed 
the two lists of books for " a progressive course in literature 
covering four years ” emphasized the need of encouraging pu¬ 
pils " to commit to memory some of the more notable passages 
both in verse and in prose,” and of training them to read aloud. 
The further advice was given that the student should " acquaint 
himself with the most important facts in the lives of the authors 
whose works he reads, and with their place in literary history.” 
This language means that the study of the Classics may be com¬ 
bined with or used to supplement the work done by the schools 
in reading, declamation, and general public speaking, and that 
the study of literary biography and history should not be neg¬ 
lected. We have already seen that training in reading is abso¬ 
lutely essential to the comprehension of the Classics; hence 
each teacher or each school must determine how far pupils have 
qualified themselves as readers before they enter upon their 
four years’ course in literature, and how far the deficiencies 
discovered may be corrected in the classes specifically devoted 
to the Classics, how far in special classes for reading and pub¬ 
lic speaking. Certainly it would seem a mistake for the teacher 
to assume a capacity for intelligent reading in all the pupils that 
come to him, and it may be suggested that a very profitable 
test of this capacity may be made at the beginning of the first 
year in connection with the recommendation of the Confer¬ 
ence with regard to memorizing selected passages. One of the 
poetical Classics should be chosen with respect to the passages 
it yields for recitation and declamation,—for instance, Gray’s 
" Elegy,” — and the teacher should be vigilant in detecting in all 
mediocre and poor reciters and declaimers the underlying failure 
to comprehend, due to inability to read intelligently. Such a use 
of the poem is bound to have two good results. It will test the 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


25 


ability to read, and it will store the minds of capable pupils with 
apt quotations and with passages of beautiful poetry delightful 
in themselves and valuable in developing standards of criticism 
by which poems subsequently read or memorized may be con¬ 
sciously or unconsciously judged. In this connection the teacher 
will do well to observe that poetry is more readily memorized 
than prose, and that orations furnish, as a rule, better materials 
for declamation than do other forms of prose. He will do well, 
also, to read the introduction which Matthew Arnold wrote for 
the first volume of Ward’s " English Poets,” where the great 
critic and poet dwelt upon the sustaining and ennobling power 
of poetry and upon the advisability of selecting supremely poeti¬ 
cal passages to serve as touchstones of the substance and style 
of the poems we read. 

20. Literary Biography and History. The recommendation 
of the Conference that students should not neglect literary biog¬ 
raphy and history is usually carried out to a certain extent by 
the use of annotated textbooks in which brief sketches of 
authors’ lives are given, as well as some account of their place 
in the history of English and American literature. The Con¬ 
ference did not in set terms recommend the use in schools of 
formal manuals of English and American literature; but some 
schools use them in addition to the required Classics. No uni¬ 
versally applicable advice can be given upon this point, but it 
seems clear that at least the minimum of biography and history 
furnished in the annotated texts should be insisted upon. Vague 
and formless literary appreciation, dissociated from all exact 
knowledge, is not to be encouraged, although it is doubtless 
better than indifference or hostility to literature; but, on the 
other hand, the teacher should be continually alive to the fact 
that all pupils do not utilize readily and pleasurably information 
about authors and books, and should remember that one of the 
most notable steps in modern teaching was taken when the old- 
fashioned manual of literary history combined with specimens of 
composition was more or less dropped from the schools. Even 
at this late day manuals of English and American literature are 


20 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


rarely written by persons of sufficiently wide reading, critical 
aptitude, and literary faculty to make them either attractive or 
authoritative. They are too frequently commonplace, or else 
represent too often the caprices and the deficiencies of the per¬ 
sons that write them ; and the time spent upon them, save in the 
case of exceptional students, is seldom repaid. Occasionally a 
literary biography may be used with profit in the schools, and 
some way should be provided by which pupils may acquire the 
large outlines of literary history, either through talks by the 
teacher or the discreet use of such a small compendium as Stop- 
ford Brooke’s " Primer ”; but, in the main, the work of the 
four years should be confined to the Classics selected and to 
such other specimens of excellent literature as it is possible to 
add by way of supplementary reading. This will be done with 
less and less loss in proportion as we learn to look upon his¬ 
tory as not merely a record of wars and political events but an 
ordered account of the progress of civilization. The history of 
literature and the arts is an integral part of culture history and 
belongs to the teacher of history. The prime business of the 
teacher of literature is to inculcate love for reading in general, 
and to develop in himself and his pupils the faculty of discrimi¬ 
nating the best literature from that which is merely mediocre. 
Perhaps he will do well to maintain a complete silence with 
respect to the poor writing that often masquerades as literature. 

21. Close Reading or Study. Literary history and biography 
naturally play a somewhat more important part in connection 
with the books set apart by the Conference for study, or, as the 
Conference also phrased it, for " close reading.” Shakespeare’s 
supreme place in English literature and some of the reasons 
for it ought to be impressed upon the mind of the student who, 
having read five representative plays, may be presumed to bring 
to the study of " Macbeth ” an interest in the man that wrote 
it. On the other hand, elaborate information with regard to the 
Elizabethan drama gained at secondhand will not greatly help a 
boy or girl to appreciate the tragic power of " Macbeth,” and it 
may render the study of the play burdensome and unattractive. 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


27 


So with the historical material on which the tragedy is based, 
and so with textual comment and philological information. 
Some of this is essential for the pupil and more of it for 
the teacher; but, even in the case of the books selected for 
study, care must be taken that the suggestion of the Con¬ 
ference, that " greater stress ” should be " laid upon form and 
style, the exact meaning of words and phrases, and the under¬ 
standing of allusions ” be not followed so slavishly that study of 
the classic ceases to be a source of enjoyment and becomes a 
dreary task. It should be remembered that knowledge of what 
is said in a note does not prove that the pupil understands an 
allusion made by Milton or that he at all appreciates it. For him 
to acquire a truly exact knowledge of all the words and phrases 
employed in Burke’s " Speech on Conciliation with America ” 
would occupy many years, if not his whole lifetime. The Con¬ 
ference meant only that Shakespeare’s tragedy, three of Milton’s 
shorter poems, Burke’s famous speech, or Washington’s " Fare¬ 
well Address ” and Webster’s first " Bunker Hill Oration,” and 
the chosen essay of Macaulay or of Carlyle should be studied 
carefully with respect to literary and historical setting and ma¬ 
terial, to style, and to important details, to the end that the work 
studied should more deeply impress itself upon the minds and 
imaginations of pupils than other books, however excellent, read 
less deliberately and at an earlier stage of youth. The making 
of young prigs, the training of human parrots, the forming even 
of embryo scholars, can scarcely have been the purpose of the 
Conference. Interested and inspired young readers, eager to 
explore the treasures of human knowledge, thought, and feeling 
garnered in books, is what four years of good training in high- 
school English ought to produce out of propitious material; and 
this result will rarely be obtained when any element of pedantry 
attaches to the teaching. 

22. The Classics from the Point of View of Interest. We 

saw at the beginning of this Introduction that " study ” involves 
the student’s zeal for or his interest in a thing. What have the 
Classics to offer him in the way of stimulation of interest, both 


28 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


in the years when he is reading somewhat widely and in the 
year when he is reading somewhat narrowly and closely ? Let 
us examine the books briefly from this point of view. The first 
group consists of narratives from the Old Testament together 
with the "Iliad,” the "Odyssey,” and the "Hineid,” in whole or 
in part. Here we have the world’s best tested stories,—the best 
tested in the length of time during which they have been told or 
read, and the best tested in the variety of the peoples to whom 
they have made their appeal. There is no compulsion upon the 
teacher to use these stories, for liberal substitution is allowed; 
but in the absence of very special reasons for avoiding them he 
should surely make use of one or more of them. The great nar¬ 
ratives of the Old Testament not only interest through their 
simple, direct appeal to human nature, but exert the spell that 
is cast by the far-away and the strange. Moreover, they serve to 
connect the school work with what the child has long known, in 
many cases, through the training he has received in home and 
at church. He comes to them as old friends. Sometimes this is 
true of the three great epics also, but, even when they are new, 
they are often found to exert an unparalleled fascination. The 
" Odyssey ” is the fountainhead of romance. Read sympathet¬ 
ically in a good translation, the adventures of Ulysses with the 
Cyclops will hold the attention of even a very young child. 
The "Iliad” and the 'VEneid” are less interesting as continuous 
narratives, but they contain episodes of great interest, and are 
notable, the one for power and truth to nature, the other for 
literary charm. It may be doubted whether any writer has ever 
surpassed in noble dignity and tender sympathy and straight¬ 
forward simplicity the sixth book of the " Iliad,” which contains 
the exchange of pledges between Glaucus and Diomede and 
the parting of Hector and Andromache. 

23. Shakespeare. If any writer has surpassed Homer, it is 
the great English dramatist, five of whose plays constitute the 
second group of the Classics for Reading. The world of Shake¬ 
speare, although in many respects far removed from us, seems 
nearer to most modern readers; hence, whether or not he is a 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


29 


greater poet than Homer, — a point which cannot be settled by 
any sort of argument, — there is little doubt that his works may 
be relied upon to interest more students to-day than even the 
" Iliad ” or the " Odyssey.” Not all of his works, however, can 
well be taught in schools. The subject matter of this play, the 
construction of that, render it not fully representative of its 
author’s genius or adaptable to the classroom. It would seem 
difficult to make from the plays a better choice for young people 
than has been made by the Conference. " The Merchant of 
Venice ” furnishes not only a delightful romance, but also some 
wonderfully poetical passages to be committed to memory, and 
contains two of Shakespeare’s most masterly characters, Shy- 
lock and the exquisitely noble Portia. " A Midsummer Night’s 
Dream ” gives us entrance into Shakespeare’s fairyland. " As 
You Like It ” may have been in Milton’s mind when he wrote: 

Or sweetest Shakespeare, Fancy’s child, 

Warble his native wood-notes wild. 

" Twelfth Night ” blends gay comedy with charming romance, 
and, like the plays just mentioned, is full of beautiful poetry. 
" Henry V,” while less full of broad human appeal than the 
two parts of " Henry IV,” which contain Shakespeare’s great¬ 
est comic creation, Falstaff, is nevertheless a good representa¬ 
tive of the history plays, and furnishes in the gallant king the 
kind of hero likely to interest youth. Finally, "Julius Caesar” 
and the play selected for study, " Macbeth,” represent well, 
though perhaps not supremely well, Shakespeare’s genius in 
what many people consider the very highest form of human 
art, to wit, the poetic tragedy. Both convey moral lessons of 
high significance; both deal with passions that can be freely 
discussed with advantage ; the one is connected with real history 
at a most important epoch, the other with history blended with 
legend; both present characters in whom Shakespeare’s power 
to give life to his personages is seen in full measure; and, 
finally, both contain passages admirably suited to declamation 
and recitation. And, in addition, " Macbeth ” is an excellent play 


30 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


for the use of such teachers as are interested in the structure 
of the drama and in the history of the stage. In short, Shake¬ 
speare, the worthiest perhaps of all writers to set before the 
youth of our country, may be read and studied in our schools, 
thanks in part to the wise provisions of the Conference, in a 
manner worthy of his importance in our literature. Nor should 
it be forgotten that in the plays selected will be found some 
charming specimens of Shakespeare’s lyrical work. His sonnets 
and his narrative poems must for many reasons be reserved 
for more mature readers and students. 

24. Prose Fiction in the Classics. The third group of the 
Classics for Reading consists of eleven works of prose fiction 
which have been chosen to represent this department of English 
literature between the years 1719 and 1882 . A glance at the 
titles and the authors shows that the four novelists who would 
probably be chosen by popular vote to represent British fiction 
at its best during the nineteenth century have been included, 
and that one of the two greatest of American romancers, Haw¬ 
thorne, is represented in a characteristic and pleasing book, 
though certainly not in his most powerful one. " The Scarlet 
Letter,” for obvious reasons, could not well have been selected; 
but it is hard to see why a Conference representing American 
schools should not have found room for at least one of the 
books of that American who wrote the great prose epic of his 
country in the " Leather Stocking Tales ” and created the novel 
of the sea. There are several names in the list of the novel¬ 
ists selected less worthy of praise than Cooper’s in respect to 
creative genius and world-wide appeal, especially to the \ gen¬ 
erous mind of youth. It is to be hoped that many teachers 
will find time to read with their pupils that fine romance once 
included in these Classics, " The Last of the Mohicans.” But 
whatever one may think of the justice and policy of omitting 
Cooper from the third group, one can find little basis for 
adverse criticism of the writers and books chosen. 

Tl\e first part of Daniel Defoe’s " Robinson Crusoe ” is 
not only the first great English story of adventure and, if we 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


31 


may judge from the enormous number of editions and transla¬ 
tions, the most popular of all works of modern fiction, but it is 
still unsurpassed in the broad appeal to human interest made 
by its main theme. The opening and closing pages of the book, 
while good of their kind, are not specially notable; but perhaps 
no other work of prose fiction has ever held human attention 
more entranced than the realistic pages that set before us the 
shipwrecked sailor alone upon his island, applying successfully 
his feeble forces to the seemingly overwhelming combat he 
must sustain with the pitiless powers of nature. "Robinson 
Crusoe ” is the epic of human perseverance and hope, and, 
although it represents a coarser age than ours, it is, both in 
substance and in art, a classic to be placed in the hands of 
every young reader. 

Beside it the teacher may very profitably set Thackeray’s 
" Henry Esmond,” a true historical novel, written by one of 
the most highly endowed of modern realistic novelists, who 
was also much of an idealist in character. Thackeray is thought 
by some to be at his greatest in "Vanity Fair” and " Barry 
Lyndon,” but it is clear that for many of his warmest admirers 
and for young people in general he is best represented by 
" Henry Esmond.” This novel deals with that interesting age 
of Queen Anne which Thackeray studied with such care and 
affection, and it is generally held to be one of the most suc¬ 
cessful attempts ever made to describe the life of a bygone age. 
It is not necessary to discuss the question whether a historical 
novel or romance ever succeeds in giving us a true picture of 
such an age, or to inquire very minutely into the absolute fidelity 
of Thackeray’s conversations and descriptions. It will suffice 
for us to feel the charm of his novel and its spirit of apprecia¬ 
tion of the past, remembering, however, that the aristocratic 
world which, in the main, it portrays did not make up the whole 
of English life. In other words, we may use the book very suc¬ 
cessfully as a sort of complement to " Robinson Crusoe.” 

Much the same thing may be said of " The Vicar of Wake¬ 
field.” It is the great merit of Defoe’s story that it fills its 


32 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


readers with the sense of the real, of Goldsmith’s that it fills its 
readers with the sense of the ideal. Some modern critics have 
fallen foul of Goldsmith’s charming prose idyl as giving an 
impossible picture of life, and impossible it is if we judge it by 
the canons of latter-day, photographic realism. But the histo¬ 
rian of Dr. Primrose and his family obeyed quite other canons. 
His object was to enlist our sympathies, to stir in us the springs 
of laughter and of tears. For generations he has succeeded, 
and it would seem wise for us not to inquire too curiously 
whether this or that scene could possibly have taken place, but 
rather to surrender ourselves to the illusion of the story and to 
take to heart its lessons of humane idealism. The " Vicar ” is a 
book which, like its author’s poem, " The Deserted Village,” 
may be totally spoiled for use in schools unless the teacher be 
in sympathy with it. 

This is less true of Scott’s popular stories "Ivanhoe” and 
" Quentin Durward,” the sheer interest of which and the fas¬ 
cination exerted by the epochs in which they are laid will suffice 
in most cases to hold the attention of all kinds of pupils. 
Scott, however, like Goldsmith, has been rudely assailed by 
some of the photographic realists, and it is therefore well to 
remember that there are fashions in novels as in other things, 
and that when whole generations of writers practice in a form 
of art, it is no wonder that they effect improvements in details. 
The modern novel is more succinct in its structure and more 
careful in its style and often more minutely accurate and acute 
in its portrayal of character, — facts which may be brought out, 
not only in connection with such books as George Eliot’s " Silas 
Marner ” and Stevenson’s capital story of adventure, " Treasure 
Island,” but also by illustrations drawn by the teacher from 
the works of living novelists like Hardy and Howells, or even 
from ephemeral works of fiction that happen to be attracting 
a moment’s attention. But these meritorious features in which 
the novel of our generation surpasses the novel of the days of 
Scott and of the later days of Dickens and Thackeray should 
not blind us to the fact that, after all, the main questions to be 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


33 


asked with regard to any work of fiction are: Does it give its 
readers a large and essentially true view of life ? Does it possess 
sufficient vitality of imagination to impress its scenes and char¬ 
acters vividly upon our memories ? Does it help us to become 
better men and women ? And the main question to be asked 
about any novelist or any poet is, Has he an affluent and impres¬ 
sive creative genius ? Answer this last question affirmatively 
and you are in the presence of a truly great writer of the imag¬ 
inative type. Answer the first questions affirmatively and you 
are in the presence of a truly great novel. Apply the tests 
afforded by these questions to Scott, with his gift of telling a 
story, with his large knowledge of history and literature, with 
his attractive, manly nature, with his skill as a brilliant painter 
of scenes, with his ability to create all kinds of characters, and 
one perceives why it is that, save for Byron, he is probably the 
most cosmopolitan figure in modern British literature, and why 
it is that the "Waverley Novels” continue to be read by suc¬ 
cessive generations of delighted and instructed readers. 

When these tests are applied to Dickens and his books,— 
whether to that strong romance, "A Tale of Two Cities,” or to 
the more subjective and semi-autobiographical " David Copper- 
field,” with its wealth of sentiment and characterization, — we 
understand at once why it is that the readers of Dickens are so 
attached to him that thousands of them have formed themselves 
into a Dickens Fellowship to do honor to him and to promote 
the reading of his books. Large and beneficent figures they 
are, those great story-tellers of the last century — Scott and 
Cooper, and Dickens and Thackeray and Hawthorne; and be¬ 
side them labored many excellent writers whose fame is secure, 
though less splendid than theirs,— such writers as Mrs. Eliza¬ 
beth Gaskell, whose pure, sweet idyl, "Cranford,” holds an 
honored place near " The Vicar of Wakefield.” 

The English Classics representing fiction, to which we add 
from the fourth group that greatest of prose allegories, Bun- 
yan’s " Pilgrim’s Progress,” as well as the delightful " Sir Roger 
de Coverley Papers ” of Addison and " The Sketch Book ” of 


34 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Washington Irving, two works by masters of the essay proper 
and of the essay blended with fiction, — the English Classics 
of imaginative prose ought, if sympathetically presented, to 
constitute one of the most inspiring portions of the school 
curriculum. They can scarcely fail to develop in a large 
number of children the habit of reading, and to such children 
the teacher may hold out the alluring promise of the vast region 
of good prose fiction in English that yet remains to be ex¬ 
plored,— the remaining works of the novelists already named 
and the stories of such writers as Miss Austen, the Bronte 
sisters, Charles Reade, Anthony Trollope, Mrs. Stowe, Bret 
Harte, Thomas Hardy, and many others. 

25. The Miscellaneous Classics. The fourth group of the 
Classics consists of books somewhat miscellaneous in character, 
but it may be loosely called the Essay Group. Various subjects 
and forms are included, as well as writers of varying purposes 
and abilities. Religion is represented by Bunyan; politics and 
affairs by Franklin’s "Autobiography,” Macaulay’s essays on 
Clive and Hastings, and the selections from Lincoln; travel 
and exploration by Parkman and Stevenson; science by Hux¬ 
ley ; nature literature by Thoreau ; literary criticism by Thack¬ 
eray’s M English Humorists ”; and the discursive essay by 
Addison and Irving. 

Several of these writers are old friends made known to us 
by the third group. Others reappear in the Classics chosen for 
study, or else have close relations with them. For example, 
Macaulay, great historian, serious essayist, speaker and public 
man, and one of the most effective and popular of all writers of 
non-imaginative prose, is read in his interesting essays on Clive 
and Hastings, which introduce us to the history of the British 
conquest and rule of India; and he is studied in his essay on 
Dr. Johnson, which not only gives us an admirable idea of how 
a brief biography should be written, but also sets before us a 
great character and increases our knowledge and appreciation 
of that eighteenth century with which so many of the Classics 
deal. Franklin’s " Autobiography ” also has to do with that 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


35 


century, and sets before us the picture of a great and interest¬ 
ing man, a typical American in his humor, his keen, practical 
intelligence, and his fine civic spirit. He was in many ways 
complementary to the greatest of all Americans, the statesman- 
general and Father of his Country, Washington, whose " Farewell 
Address ” is one of the Classics for study. And both Franklin 
and Washington are forerunners of the two great Americans 
— Webster and Lincoln — chosen to represent the nineteenth 
century, as well as contemporaries of Edmund Burke, whose 
" Speech on Conciliation ” carries us back to the revolution 
which made America an independent country. Of all these 
five writers, not one is to be regarded strictly as a man of let¬ 
ters ; that is, as a writer pure and simple, who gives up his life 
to the literary calling. Burke, in his capacity as a political phi¬ 
losopher and a prose stylist, comes perhaps nearest to playing 
the part of a literary man, but he also played a leading part 
in public affairs. Such affairs were the main occupation of 
Franklin, Washington, Webster, and Lincoln, but writing was 
an instrument necessary to their success, and they had such 
interesting and important things to say, and said them so well, 
that at least three of them — Franklin, Webster, and Lincoln — 
have become important figures in American literature, and one 
of them, Franklin, a distinguished figure in the literature of the 
world. Perhaps the most striking lesson taught by the works 
of all of them is the fact that in literature, no less than in life, 
it is character that chiefly counts. It was character rather than 
genius that made Washington the Father of his Country. It was 
character more than genius that made possible not only Lin¬ 
coln’s wonderfully inspiring career as a statesman and a man, 
but also his ever-increasing fame as a writer, — that turned the 
short, occasional Gettysburg speech into an imperishable classic. 

This importance of character in the making of literature natu¬ 
rally suggests the importance of literature in the making of char¬ 
acter, and we are at once led to the reflection that there is at 
least one point of view from which every earnest teacher and 
pupil can derive profit from these English Classics. Technical 


36 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


training of one sort or another is needed for thoroughly satis¬ 
factory teaching of "Julius Caesar ” as a poetic tragedy and of 
" Lycidas ” as a pastoral elegy; but any man or woman who 
comprehends and admires great personalities can teach the 
writings of Washington and Lincoln and not a few of the other 
Classics in such a way as to make them contribute greatly to 
the development of every pupil. Nor is character building the 
least of the good results that may flow from sympathetic teach¬ 
ing of books like those selected from the writings of Thoreau, 
Parkman, and Huxley. The application of one’s powers to the 
acquisition of systematized knowledge in the fields of exact 
science, the sharpening of one’s faculties of observation, whether 
as a stay-at-home naturalist or nature lover, or as an explorer by 
proxy of distant regions and lands, and, in general, the develop¬ 
ment of a wide variety of interests, make for character through 
stimulation of the emotions and the intellect. 

It may be added that many of the Classics comprised in the 
fourth group tend in particular to foster patriotism in Americans. 
Franklin and Irving are countrymen of whom we are proud; 
Parkman is a traveler and historian whose books bring home 
to us the extent of our national domain and the romantic 
interest that attaches to its past; Thoreau, in his life and 
environment, brings us in contact with nature in her more 
intimate phases, and introduces us to the group of trans- 
cendentalist writers who constitute one of the chief glories of 
American literature and of New England’s history. And the 
patriotism these men foster is of that broad and wholesome 
type which helps rather than hinders the development of a 
spirit of true cosmopolitan sympathy with all mankind. 

26. The Poets. The fifth group contains selections from 
English and American poetry, — lyrical, idyllic, and narrative. 
In view of the high literary value of good poetry and of the 
fact that childhood and youth are the most impressionable 
periods of our lives, it is especially important that the teacher 
take every opportunity to instill a love of poetry in his pupils, 
to encourage memorizing of choice passages, and by his own 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


3 7 


reading to foster delight in melodies and harmonies, in felicitous 
diction, and in the flights of imagination and fancy. It is through 
poetry that the largest number of people can be brought in 
contact with beauty, since poetry can be printed in a cheap 
book, whereas to appreciate to the full the beauty of a picture, 
a statue, a great building, a lovely landscape, it is often neces¬ 
sary to make a costly journey. We might, therefore, without 
being too fanciful, say that this fifth group of Classics is chosen 
primarily to assist us in developing a sense of the beautiful. 

Except for some of Milton’s shorter poems contained in the 
study group and in the second book of Palgrave’s " Golden 
Treasury,” none of the English poets of supreme excellence 
is represented in the Classics chosen for the years 1913-1915, 
since Shakespeare appears as a dramatist only. The great 
representative poet of the eighteenth century, Alexander Pope, 
since the omission of "The Rape of the Lock,” is practically 
ignored, and the still greater Dryden, with the abandonment of 
his " Palamon and Arcite,” appears only in the odes — superb 
of their kind — which Palgrave has included. Even those two 
great poets of the close of the eighteenth century, Robert Bums, 
the chief of our song writers, and William Cowper, charming 
poet of nature and domestic life, and three of the greatest of 
the poets who made illustrious the first quarter of the nineteenth 
century—Wordsworth, Shelley, and Keats—are presented only 
in the selections made by Palgrave. But it is at least clear that 
the selections contained in "The Golden Treasury” are very 
beautiful in themselves and are likely to stimulate in pupils who 
care for poetry a desire to read more of the poets just named; 
and, as we have already seen, it is on the whole better to begin 
the study of poetry with the simpler forms of the art. 

Gray’s " Elegy written in a Country Churchyard,” often said 
to be the most popular poem in the language; Poe’s " Raven,” 
which rivals it in popularity; Goldsmith’s descriptive and senti¬ 
mental "Deserted Village,” full of charm and pathos; Lowell’s 
pleasing '* Vision of Sir Launfal ” ; Scott’s romantic and inter¬ 
esting " Lady of the Lake ” ; Byron’s appealing " Prisoner of 


38 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Chillon ” and the fourth canto of his " Childe Harold,” with its 
noble passages of description; Longfellow’s excellent narrative 
of " The Courtship of Miles Standish ”; Whittier’s faithful 
picture of his boyhood life in " Snowbound ” ; Macaulay’s spir¬ 
ited " Lays of Ancient Rome ”; Arnold’s pathetic and noble 
" Sohrab and Rustum”; Tennyson’s carefully wrought and 
attractive " Idylls of the King,” — none of these poems makes 
too many demands upon youthful minds, and all of them make 
a genuine and stimulating appeal to the sense of beauty. They 
are excellent in their positive merits, so far as these go, and they 
are not likely, if taught with discretion, — that is, without insist¬ 
ence upon technical minutiae, — to discourage or alienate pupils 
who are not by nature attracted to poetry. 

Much the same thing may be said of the selections from 
Browning, save for perhaps one or two items. He plainly be¬ 
longs to the class of poets whose peculiar qualities unfit them 
for study in schools and prevent them from attaining' wide 
popularity even among adults. , Some glimpses of such poets 
should, however, be given, especially when, as in Browning’s 
case, they stand close to our own age and are hailed as masters 
by their admirers. Coleridge is, in many respects, such a poet; 
and it is fortunate that he is represented by "The Ancient 
Mariner,” a poem which contains a singularly impressive story 
and is full of descriptions of weird and vivid beauty. If, how¬ 
ever, the underlying moral remains hidden from a class,—if some 
minds are disconcerted by the strange atmosphere and setting 
of* the poem, if many of its triumphs of rhythm and of imag¬ 
inative description fall upon deaf ears and blank eyes, — the 
disappointed teacher should not lose courage or criticize harshly 
the Conference which selected Coleridge’s great poem for read¬ 
ing. It and many of the selections from Books II, III, and IV 
of Palgrave’s " Golden Treasury,” and the three poems of Mil- 
ton chosen for study, have their proper place among, the Clas¬ 
sics, if only for the reason that it is a poor pedagogy that denies 
vistas to children. A small measure of the ungrasped, the un¬ 
realizable, in a subject like literature may allure rather than 


APPROACHING THE CLASSICS 


39 


discourage, especially if the teacher is frank, sympathetic, and 
stimulating in his presentation of the material. Young minds 
respond quickly to generous treatment of poetry; and if the 
teacher will talk little and read much, thus letting the poetry 
produce its own effects; and if in what he does say he avoids 
literalness and minute analysis, omits needless questions on 
matters of scholarly detail, and emphasizes by his own conta¬ 
gious appreciation the elements of beauty, aesthetic and moral, 
to be found in the poems it is his privilege to teach, he may 
well find that the Classics of the fifth group form the most 
attractive and beneficial portion of the reading assigned for 
the four years of English work. 

27 . Conclusion. We have now passed in rapid review the 
five groups of the Classics selected for reading, and we have 
mentioned briefly all the Classics assigned for study save 
Carlyle’s " Essay on Burns,” which may be substituted for 
Macaulay’s " Life of Johnson,” and studied with much the 
same purposes and results. The principles, chronological and 
logical, upon which the Classics have been grouped, are so 
obvious that they need no further discussion; but it will be well 
to observe that in our own treatment of the groups we have 
passed from an emphasis upon the interest of some books, 
on through an emphasis upon the ethical value of others, to an 
emphasis upon the delight afforded by the volumes selected 
from modern English and American poetry. It is obvious that 
no hard-and-fast division should be drawn between the books 
according as they interest, improve, and delight; for it may be 
said of many of the books in each group that they interest, 
improve, and delight all competent and sympathetic readers. 
Nevertheless, the distinctions involved in the use of these terms 
have their value. With some pupils some books are best taught 
from the point of view of the interest they arouse, although for 
the teacher who knows them well it may be a matter rather 
of the improvement or the delight they afford. Many men and 
women go through their lives knowing literature almost solely 
through the books that interest and improve, and leaving to one 


40 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


side the supreme poetic masterpieces that yield to qualified 
readers the maximum of literary delight. Many teachers of liter¬ 
ature spend more time reading literary criticism than they devote 
to the " Iliad ” and the " Odyssey,” the plays of Sophocles, 
the " Divine Comedy,” the tragedies of Shakespeare, Milton’s 
" Paradise Lost,” and Goethe’s " Faust.” Many a man prefers 
reading a new volume of history to re-reading Scott’s " Old 
Mortality.” Thousands receive more ethical stimulation from 
Emerson’s " Essays ” than from the " Iliad,” — indeed, some 
over-sensitive moderns have been bold enough to denounce the 
Greek epic on account of the elements of barbarism they dis¬ 
cover in it. Expostulation is almost vain in such cases. If any or 
all of the essays of Emerson produce nobler feelings in a reader 
than the sixth book of the ” Iliad,” then that reader had better 
continue to hitch his wagon to his chosen star. There is no 
way of proving to him that the remoter star is the larger. But 
the aphorism, u The child is father of the man,” holds just as 
true as that other aphorism, " Many men, many minds.” Let 
us remember, therefore, that the wise teacher will endeavor to 
consult as far as possible the tastes of his pupils; that he will 
vary his emphasis upon the several Classics in accordance with 
the needs and desires of his classes; and that, whenever he 
can, he will endeavor, by precept and example, to set forth the 
supreme excellence of the greatest poetry, which is capable, 
while it delights us, of ministering to our improvement and of 
centering our interest upon high and worthy things. 


PART TWO 


STUDIES OF TYPICAL CLASSICS 


A few words should be said in explanation of the studies that 
follow. They embody suggestions which, it is hoped, will enliven 
the classroom and send boys and girls from one good book to 
another. The questions have been framed to assist students 
both in profiting to the utmost from the high-school course in 
itself and in preparing for entrance examinations for college. 
They are designed to be significant and tolerably searching, 
without being so numerous as to kill enthusiasm. The technical 
terms employed are few and simple, such as could not be dis¬ 
pensed with. In order, for instance, that we may have a story, 
somebody must do something, and, of course, there must be the 
place and the time —where and when — the something is done. 
The technical way of expressing this is to say that a story must 
have " characters,” " plot,” and " setting.” What proportion of 
emphasis shall be given to each of these elements depends upon 
the taste of the author, but in every story all three are sure to 
be present. 

In discussing literature without plot or story, — for example, 
essays and speeches, — it has been found convenient to use 
the word "argument,” meaning "abstract” or "summary of 
the chief points.” Much more attention has been paid to "con¬ 
struction and style ” in some studies than in others. In the 
books which are adapted for reading rather than for detailed 
study, the object has been to help the pupil to develop his 
powers of discrimination in order that he may enjoy good 
work and know why it is good, and understand why and how 
it differs from other good work. In the books for more careful 

41 


42 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


study,— Carlyle’s " Burns,” Macaulay’s "Johnson,” and Burke’s 
"Conciliation,” for example, — the printed outlines will enable 
the pupil readily to look at the work in the large and to grasp 
the main thoughts. By doing some of this outlining himself, as 
he is asked to do in certain cases, he will the more quickly 
perceive its value. In one way or another, however, the teacher 
should make it clear that analysis is recommended not for its 
own sake but in the hope that through it the student may be 
led to appreciate skillful composition and to become ambitious 
of doing good composing for himself. 

The studies naturally fall into six groups, the order within 
each group being chronological. Although, for the sake of con¬ 
venience, the arrangement of the material that makes up the 
numerous studies is uniform, the fact that the "author’s life and 
work ” comes last does not mean that it is not sometimes an 
excellent plan to interest young people in the life of a writer be¬ 
fore asking them to read his writings. This is one of the many 
points on which the teacher, who knows his pupils better than 
any one else can, must use his own judgment. Another point 
for the teacher to determine is which of the various methods of 
procedure outlined below is best adapted to his needs. Some 
of these methods are easy enough for the least mature pupils 
of high-school age; others — generally, it is believed, in the 
case of books adapted to the older pupils — are difficult enough, 
here and there, for the most brilliant and mature students. If 
a teacher finds the treatment of any classic too difficult for his 
pupils, all he has to do is to simplify it in accordance with the 
suggestions given in the less difficult study of a similar classic. 

All references in these studies, unless otherwise explained, 
are to the Standard English Classics edition.(Ginn and Company, 
Publishers) of the particular classic under discussion. The reader 
is referred to Preface, Introduction, Notes, and Index, as well 
as to chapters and pages. There are also numerous cross refer¬ 
ences to these studies, in a form like this: See the Study of 
" The Last of the Mohicans.” 


GROUP I 


NOVELS AND ROMANCES 

THE VICAR OF WAKEFIELD 

Introduction. If we should trust Goldsmith’s estimate of his 
own work, " there are an hundred faults in this Thing ”; but 
Irving says that " few productions of the kind afford greater 
amusement in the perusal, and still fewer inculcate more im¬ 
pressive lessons of morality.” Austin Dobson says that it " re¬ 
mains and will continue to be one of the first of our English 
classics.” Goethe read and re-read it, saying that it had in¬ 
fluenced his writings, as we can no doubt see in "Hermann und 
Dorothea.” 

True enough, the novel lacks plot and offers a more or less 
distorted view of life, but, as Carlyle says, it is " the best of 
all modern idyls.” It depicts typical English country life with 
poetic insight and moral purpose, and it is not merely national 
but universal, for in a sense it is the thirteenth chapter of 
i Corinthians put into the form of a novel. Other prose idyls 
worthy of comparison are Mrs. Gaskell’s " Cranford ” and Miss 
Mitford’s " Our Village,” for quaint village conditions, and such 
novels of George Sand’s as " La mare au diable ” and " La 
petite Fadette.” In studying the worthy Vicar one may turn to 
" The Country Doctor ” of Balzac and the prison activities of 
Dr. Manette in Dickens’s "Tale of Two Cities.” Sketches here 
and there in Mitchell’s "Reveries of a Bachelor” and "Dream 
Life’’are suggestive of the atmosphere of "The Vicar of Wake¬ 
field.” Miss Jewett’s "Deephaven” offers a similar study. But 
a more definite parallel may be found by comparing Job’s mis¬ 
fortunes in chapter i of the Book of Job with the Vicar’s in 
chapter xxviii of "The Vicar of Wakefield.” 

43 


44 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


It will be well, before reading this novel, to get a glimpse of the 
life and times of Goldsmith and the conditions which produced 
the book. (See p. xiv.) There are many illuminating passages 
in Irving’s "Oliver Goldsmith,” — in particular, chapter xvii; 
and Boswell’s "Life of Johnson” (see "Goldsmith,” in the 
Index) will give many anecdotes illustrative of the mental 
traits and acts of Goldsmith which may explain his treatment 
of life as shown in " The Vicar of Wakefield.” 

The Setting. Goldsmith has described typical English country 
and provincial types. Compare the setting, including the time 
of the story, with that of George Eliot’s " Scenes from Clerical 
Life” or "Adam Bede.” These topics are suggested for short 
themes or discussions: 

1. The Vicar’s household. 

2. His later home. 

3. The family party on Michaelmas eve. (See chap, xi.) 

4. The family portrait. (See p. 87.) 

5. The Vicar in jail. 

6. English prisons in Goldsmith’s day. 

7. Note the details of dress, manners, and language indicative of 
the period of the story. 

The Story and the Incidents. The story is an exposition of 
fortitude under misfortune, and the consequent reward; it fol¬ 
lows Job to a detail, but the Vicar is the sun from whom radiates 
the light of the book. What elements of plot structure are lack¬ 
ing ? What are the most extravagant incidents ? Mark off the 
various divisions in the story. Does the account of the daughters 
in chapter i give any hint as to the plot ? Why does the Vicar 
move and George leave home (chap, iii) ? How good friends 
have Sophia and Burchell become in chapter vi ? What is the 
force of the ballad in chapter viii ? What purpose does the 
church episode serve (chap, x) ? Notice that up to chapter xi 
Thornhill and Burchell have not visited the Vicar’s at the same 
time. Give Moses’s story of the fair (chap. xii). Relate it 
as told by the sharper. What connection has the fable of the 
giant and the dwarf with the story (chap, xiii) ? In chapter xv 


THE VICAR OF WAKEFIELD 


45 


explain Mr. Burchell’s conduct. How may his letter be taken ? 
Show how Mrs. Primrose succeeds in bringing Mr. Thornhill to 
a proposal (chap. xvi). Explain the relation of the mad-dog 
poem to the story (chap. xvii). In chapter xviii why does the 
Vicar suspect Burchell ? Why does the author have the Vicar 
go seventy miles from home in search of his daughter, and then 
fall ill ? Compare this chapter with Peggotty’s search for Emily 
in " David Copperfield.” Note the similarity of George’s ex¬ 
periences (chap, xx) to Goldsmith’s, and the resemblances in the 
two men. Explain the Vicar’s treatment of Olivia in chapter xxi. 
Note the theatrical device in the chapter. Describe the fire 
(chap. xxii). Is it necessary to the story ? How does Goldsmith 
untangle the plot and keep up interest until the end ? 

The Characters. Despite certain exaggerations, most of the 
characters in " The Vicar of Wakefield ” are types. The pupils 
should trace resemblances in the Vicar to Goldsmith’s father, 
and in Moses, George, and Burchell to Goldsmith himself. 
These characters, the Vicar’s wife and daughters, and Mr. Thorn¬ 
hill furnish good subjects for character sketches. Which char¬ 
acter is the most natural ? Which the most overdone ? How does 
Goldsmith describe his people, — by their own acts or by what 
others say about them ? Show how the Vicar’s own acts lead 
to many of the incidents in the story. Compare Mrs. Bennet’s 
daughters in Jane Austen’s "Pride and Prejudice” with Mrs. 
Primrose’s, and note the matrimonial ambitions of the two 
mothers. Tell in what way the characters are similar to or 
different from those in "Ivanhoe,” "Silas Marner,” and " Henry 
Esmond.” What are their most desirable traits? their most 
repellent ? What are the Vicar’s strong and weak points ? Note 
in chapters ii, iv, vi, ix, xiii, xiv, xvii, xix, xxi, xxv, xxvi, and 
xxix the sayings or acts of the Vicar which explain his char¬ 
acter. Trace the wife’s traits in the same way. How do the 
characters contribute to the dramatic touches in the book ? 

Construction and Style. Was it wise to write the book in 
the first person? (See the Study of " Lorna Doone.”) Gold¬ 
smith’s style is simple, natural, expressive of warmth of feeling 


4 6 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


and delicate sentiment, though clouded at times with heavy 
phrases. There are also marked evidences of subtle humor 
and adroit allusions. Let the pupil note evidences of all these 
qualities on pages i, 2, 6, 7, 17, 18, 22, 32, 50, 54, 73, 78, 88, 
114, 126, 158, 185, 217, etc. Does Goldsmith excel in narra¬ 
tion or in description ? Study carefully the notes at the bottom 
of the pages, and look up the other literary and historical allu¬ 
sions. Is Goldsmith pedantic ? Read " The Deserted Village ” 
and " She Stoops to Conquer.” Observe Goldsmith’s style in 
each, his knowledge of human nature, and his constructive 
power, and state whether you think he excels as poet, drama¬ 
tist, or novelist, and why. Read Pope’s " Rape of the Lock,” 
and note the antitheses in style, subject matter, and treatment. 
What merits of " The Vicar of Wakefield ” make it a classic ? 
Note the parallel on page 106 to Corporal Nym in Shake¬ 
speare’s ” Henry V.” Are there any grammatical or rhetorical 
faults in the book ? 

Goldsmith’s Life and Work. The teacher may like to assign 
topics to be looked up by some pupils in Dobson’s " Life of 
Goldsmith ” in the Great Writers Series, or Black’s, in the 
English Men of Letters Series, or Irving’s. (See the Study of 
this last book.) Thackeray, Macaulay, and De Quincey have 
excellent essays on Goldsmith’s place in English literature. 
Some mature students might study the question whether he 
accomplished anything in letters toward a return to a love of 
man and nature. He may be compared with Swift, Burke, 
Steele, Moore, and other Irish men of letters. 

The following questions should be answered : What effect did 
Goldsmith’s early roving life have on his later work ? In what 
respects did his personality both help and hinder his literary ex¬ 
pression ? Did he learn most from books, people, or travel ? To 
what extent is Johnson responsible for the making of Gold¬ 
smith ? Who were Goldsmith’s detractors, and how did they 
affect him ? Who was the " Jessamy Bride,” and how did she 
influence him ? (See F. Frankfort Moore’s novel of that title.) 
What is Goldsmith’s place in fame ? 


SCOTT’S IVANHOE 


47 


IVANHOE 

Introduction. " Ivanhoe ” is an interesting example of the 
historical romance. The first six chapters undoubtedly are slow 
reading, but after grasping the essential facts of these fifty or 
sixty pages, the pupil is almost certain to be carried rapidly 
through the book by his interest in the story, provided the 
teacher does not hamper his enjoyment by the discussion of 
too many details. (See p. xii, " Ivanhoe ” in the Class Room, 
noting in particular the discussion of oral reading.) 

An experiment tried in a high school of seventeen hundred 
pupils, where " Ivanhoe ” was always read in the first year, illus¬ 
trates two methods of studying this classic. It was taught inten¬ 
sively for several years. Themes were written reproducing 
important story units, the historical setting was worked out in 
detail to show anachronisms, maps of the country were made 
and exact plans of Rotherwood, Torquilstone, the lists at Ashby 
and Templestowe were drawn. At the end of the course, pupils 
were asked to write unsigned papers, answering, among other 
questions, what books they would like to have eliminated from 
the course. Almost every pupil answered that" Ivanhoe ” should 
be omitted. An informal method of teaching was then adopted 
with the result that almost every pupil was enthusiastic over the 
book. The conclusion of the teachers in this school was that a 
careful study of this novel in forty or fifty recitations was almost 
certainly fatal to any love for " Ivanhoe ” or appreciation of 
similar stories; whereas, an enthusiastic, lively presentation in 
a dozen or fifteen recitations produced the eager^inquiry for 
more literature of a similar kind. " The Talisman,” with its 
fight in the first chapter, is likely to appeal to the boy. Then 
if the teacher can make him understand that nearly all of Scott’s 
novels are equally interesting after the somewhat lengthy intro¬ 
duction, he can be directed to " Quentin Durward,” " Fair Maid 
of Perth,” " Bride of Lammermoor,” " Kenilworth,” " Guy 
Mannering,” " Rob Roy,” and others. Suggestions to read 
" The Lady of the Lake,” " Marmion,” and " The Lay of the 


48 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Last Minstrel ” can be best emphasized by reading a few stirring 
passages in class. From Scott the pupil may turn to Steven¬ 
son’s "Treasure Island,” "Kidnapped,” and "The Master of 
Ballantrae,” and to the work of many historical novelists,— 
Kingsley’s " Westward Ho,” Reade’s " The Cloister and the 
Hearth,” George Eliot’s " Romola,” as well as the novels 
of Sir Gilbert Parker, Mr. Stanley J. Weyman, Mr. Winston 
Churchill, and others. In short, the work in fiction of the first 
year should be extensive and suggestive rather than intensive 
and analytical, and details that will detract from interest and 
enjoyment should be generally omitted. 

The Setting. The student is warned, as he reads the novel, 
not to lose what is perhaps the most enduring charm of " the 
Wizard of the North ” (see p. xvii). Distinctions between 
" plot,” " characterization,’.’ and " setting ” are given on pages 
xv-xvii. The pupil should master these terms, learn their appli¬ 
cation to " Ivanhoe,” and gain power to apply them to other 
novels. Any extensive comparison, however, between " Ivan¬ 
hoe ” and other novels in these particulars is beyond the 
ability of most first-year pupils. 

The Story and the Incidents. Teachers who have not had 
considerable experience with young readers do not always realize 
how much help some pupils are sure to need in order to under¬ 
stand " Ivanhoe.” Fortunately, however, the brighter pupils are 
able to give almost all the assistance that is needed, provided the 
teacher allows them to lead in telling the story in class and in 
picking out the most important incidents. Note particularly the 
closing sentence in the discussion of the topical method of reci¬ 
tation on page xiii, with details at the close of chapters v-viii. 
See also the chapters mentioned below under The Characters. 

Themes, oral or written, may be based on the main events 
of such chapters; for example: 

1. The plan of the tournament. 

2. The first day of the tournament. 

3. The crowning of Rowena as Queen of Beauty. 

4. Gurth pays Isaac. (See chap, x.) 


SCOTT’S IVANHOE 


49 


5. Gurth and the outlaws. (See chap, xi.) 

6. The tournament. 

7. Locksley’s shooting before Prince John. 

8. Cedric and Athelstane at John’s banquet. 

9. The capture. (See chap, xix.) 

10. The storming of the castle. 

11. The trial of Rebecca at Templestowe. 

The Characters. Questions like the following will aid in get¬ 
ting under way: 

1. What impression does each of these characters give you on his 
first appearance ? 

Gurth and Wamba (chap, i); Brian; Aymer; the Palmer (chap, ii; 
note his first remark, p. 24); Cedric (chap, iii); Rowena (chap, iv); 
Isaac (chap, v); Rebecca (chap. vii). 

2. What inference do you draw from the way in which Rowena 
takes Ivanhoe’s part in chapter v? 

3. What two characters are most prominent in chapter vi? 

Possibly some of the questions concerning the characters in 
" Lorna Doone ” may suggest questions worth asking about 
" Ivanhoe.” Certainly pupils should be encouraged to bring to 
the class queries of their own and to discuss such interesting 
chapters as vii-xiv, xvi-xvii, xix, xxiii-xxiv, xxix, xxxviii, xl, xliii, 
and xliv, both for the sake of the characters and for the sake 
of the incidents. In each case it is decidedly worth while to 
allow the pupils to choose the passages here and there that 
they wish to hear read aloud. 

Good questions for discussion in class are these: 

1. Who is the heroine? 

2. Do Scott’s characters grow as the novel progresses, or are they 
the same at the end as at the beginning ? (Cf. Shakespeare’s charac¬ 
ters and see the remarks on p. viii.) 

3. What makes Scott’s characters interesting? (See pp. viii-ix.) 

4. With what characters and classes of characters does Scott in¬ 
tend us to sympathize ? 

Construction and Style. For a brief discussion of the construc¬ 
tion of the novel, see page xvi. Pupils readily find illustrations 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


50 

of Scott’s skillful portraiture of persons and his realistic presen¬ 
tation of details of costume, scenery, architecture, and medieval 
custom (see p. xvii), and may imitate him with profit in descrip¬ 
tions of their own. If they point out instances of his diffuseness, 
they should be led to lay more stress on passages that illustrate 
such virtues as his humor, his sympathy, or his vigor. 

Scott’s Life and Work. What is best worth remembering 
about Scott’s ancestry ? (See p. v.) What valuable qualities did 
he inherit from his parents ? How did he get his real education ? 
(See p. vii.) Name the most important of his great metrical 
romances. (See p. viii.) Do you understand why " Ivanhoe ” 
is perhaps the most popular of his great prose romances ? (See 
p. x.) Note the circumstances under which he wrote this novel 
and his character as it appeared after the famous failure of the 
firms in which he had long been a silent partner. (See pp. x-xi.) 
Why is he a greater historian than a mere dry-as-dust chronicler? 
(See p. ix.) 


QUENTIN DURWARD 

Introduction. The purpose of the reading of " Quentin Dur- 
ward,” as in the case of all novels, should be, first and foremost, 
pure pleasure. To secure this the reader should try to make 
real each scene; to picture in the imagination all the events as 
if they were actually moving on before the eyes, as the theater 
tries to show them. The story will also make lifelike* one period 
in history, — a most excellent reason for the reading of histor¬ 
ical novels. 

The life of the author should be left until the book is finished ; 
the historical notes may each be read in its place, that the times 
may be more fully understood and therefore enjoyed ; the ques¬ 
tions on setting and character may be studied in the course of 
reading, but those on plot structure require the completed story. 

The Setting. The mere time and place are given in the first 
sentence, but each chapter adds to our idea of the true setting, 
the times, that is, how the people of that age and place lived 


QUENTIN DURWARD 5 I 

and thought. What does Quentin think of the surroundings of 
the castle and of life within it ? (Chaps, ii, iii.) 

Discussion may help to visualize the setting, while the thought 
of to-day concerning the topics may be given in twenty-minute 
themes written in class. These subjects are worth considering: 

1. The Scottish bodyguard in France. Use of mercenaries in 
war. Standing armies. 

2. The Bohemians. (Story and notes, pp. 9, 23.) The gypsy 
to-day. 

3. The boar hunt. Hunting to-day. 

4. King Louis’s superstitions. Superstitions to-day. 

5. Astrology: "day, hour, and minute of birth” (see p. 98); 
"horoscope ” (see p. 161); influence of comets and sun spots. 

6. Feudalism: duke and king (see pp. 1 ff., 105 If.); minor ward 
and duke (see pp. 106, 418 ff.). 

A map drawn in outline, with the chief places added as they 
are mentioned, will aid in fixing the place. 

The Story and the Incidents. The rapid succession of adven¬ 
tures forms the most interesting part of this novel, the love story 
adding that element of romance which most readers like. Scott 
himself said that the love story was merely to supply a chain 
for more important scenes and pictures of people. Does a re¬ 
gard for rank affect Quentin’s feeling for the countess ? (See 
pp. 39, 142.) Does the love story run smoothly? How does 
Quentin finally win his bride ? (See p. 453 to end.) 

Note how the chapter entitled The Bohemians throws light 
on character, shows setting, and is also vital to the story,— 
in other words, is a plot incident. (As evidence of this observe 
that Quentin’s action compels him to enter the service of Louis 
and wins him the gratitude of the gypsy who assists him later.) 

The following subjects are suggested for oral or written 
compositions: 

1. Pick out the plot incidents, so that the chain of events may 
make the complete story. 

2. Choose some seemingly unimportant event, and show how it 
may be followed by consequences of great moment. (Original story.) 


52 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


3. Compare the drinking habits of that day with those of to-day. 

4. A breakfast well earned. (See chap, iii.) 

5. An awkward moment for confidences. (See p. 116.) 

6. " If a man makes boast” (see pp. 121, 124, 125); or, Shrewd¬ 
ness demands silence. (Original story.) 

7. The Burgundian envoy in the council hall. 

a. The scene at the entrance. 

b. The count and his following. 

c. The messages from the duke. 

d. King Louis’s responses. 

e. The challenge. 

The Characters. Does the author use the method of mention¬ 
ing a trait of character and then illustrating it by an incident, or 
does he oftener show the man in action that you may see the 
trait ? The king (chap, i) illustrates one method; Le Balafr£ 
(chap, v, followed by p. 60) the other. 

With whom may you compare and contrast Quentin, as the 
author does the king and the duke ? Who is the best character 
in the book ? Why ? Who is the most interesting ? Why ? Who 
is the villain (using the word in the dramatic sense) in the story ? 
Give reasons. If you have read " Ivanhoe,” compare King Louis 
with King Richard (note what the author says of Louis’s gov¬ 
ernment and of his usefulness to France, pp. 3, 4, 5); Quentin 
with Ivanhoe. 

These topics may be used for written work: 

1. Honor among thieves. (See p. 216.) 

2. Take an adjective given by Scott as a trait of character, and 
illustrate it by an incident drawn from the book; for example, " pas¬ 
sionate” temper of the duke. (See p. 417.) 

3. Choose an adjective that describes the character of an acquaint¬ 
ance, and illustrate it by an incident. 

4. Compare Scott’s appeal to our sympathies in behalf of charac¬ 
ters or groups of people with that in " Ivanhoe.” 

The following are good general topics for discussion: 

1. If the story were dramatized, which incidents (plot incidents) 
should be retained ? which might be omitted ? (Those parts serving 
to illustrate setting or character alone.) 


QUENTIN DURWARD 


53 


2. Is chivalry only a Middle-Age conception, or have we in modern 
life the ideals which were formerly expressed in jousts, tournaments, 
and knight-errantry ? "The Knighte’s Tale," by Chaucer, and " The 
Idylls of the King,” by Tennyson, are delightful tales of chivalry, 
while boys will like " Don Quixote,” by Cervantes. 

3. Discuss how, in society, obscure or lowly people are truly 
joined in interest to great people. (See p. 8.) 

4. Which adventure and which character stands out most clearly 
in the memory when the reading is finished ? How did the author 
secure this vividness? 

Construction and Style. Notice the wealth of imagination in 
this novel, making the whole one splendid pageant. Each great 
event is carefully planned for by hints; for example, the "ex¬ 
traordinary resolution” taken by Louis to visit the Duke, his 
enemy. (See pp. 162, 163, 172, 321.) Note also the effect of 
Quentin’s encounter with Dunois on the subsequent events at 
Liege and at Peronne. 

Find the words in the Preface which characterize the style of 
Scott. (See pp. xxiii and xxvi.) Add your own impression of 
Scott’s manner of clothing his thoughts. Have you found many 
words you did not know before ? Have you found many whose 
roots are the Latin words you are studying ? The use of simile 
and metaphor may be learned from a multitude of examples, for 
Scott delights in the vividness of a picturesque style. 

Scott’s Life and Work. Try to get Scott’s "Autobiography,” 
and Lockhart’s " Life,” — which is quoted largely in the Bio¬ 
graphical Preface (pp. 5 ff.),— reading snatches here and there. 
For an excellent short sketch of his life, see Long’s " English 
Literature.” Study the life to become familiar with the eager 
boy’s devotion to the tales of his native land (pp. vii-xiv); the 
fine struggle with misfortune (pp. xxii and xxx) ; and the career, 
noble from birth to death. How far was the life influenced by 
physical disability ? What was the type of writing which he made 
so successful ? (See p. xxvi.) Note his love of Scotland. (See 
chap, vii.) For his explanation of the feeling between High¬ 
lander and Lowlander (p. 80), see " The Lady of the Lake.” 
For other interesting stories of his, see the Study of "Ivanhoe.” 


54 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


When Scott thought he was dying, he said, " For myself I am 
unconscious of ever having done any man an injury, or omitted 
any fair opportunity of doing any man a benefit.” Does this 
ideal of character show itself in " Quentin Durward ” ? 

THE HOUSE OF THE SEVEN GABLES 

Introduction. The Preface enables the reader to get a firm 
grasp of the unity of the narrative and a good understanding of 
its moral. It makes clear that the immediate action of the story 
is only a part of the larger story of the Pyncheon family and 
may indeed be regarded as the closing episode of it, but the 
episode that the author especially selects for his subject. The 
theme is essentially that the sins of the fathers shall be visited 
upon the children unto the third and fourth generation. The 
Preface also prepares the reader for the introduction of the 
" marvelous ” into the tale, at the same time showing that 
nothing contrary to the truth of the human heart can enter in. 
The story, the romance as Hawthorne called it, must be true 
to the feelings of himself and his readers. 

The following are suggested as topics for discussion and for 
oral and written composition : 

1. How does Hawthorne distinguish a romance from a novel? 
(See Preface.) 

2. Should you regard " The House of the Seven Gables ” as a 
novel in the usual sense of the word? 

3. What are the chief elements of a novel? 

The Setting. The scene of the action is laid in an unnamed 
New England town, which, however, is well known to be Salem, 
the town of the Hawthornes from a time nearly coincident with 
its settlement. It is as narrow a scene as can be easily imagined, 
for except for " the flight of the two owls,” which occurs on a 
railroad train, it never leaves the Pyncheon house and garden. 
The time is just before the middle of the last century, when 
railroads were still a novelty, and the duration of the action is 
only a few weeks. The action of what has been called the larger 


THE HOUSE OF THE SEVEN GABLES 


55 


story, the story of the Pyncheon family, extends from the time 
of the persecution of the witches, about the close of the seven¬ 
teenth century, to the end of this romance. In this case, too, 
the scene remains the same, always the house of the seven 
gables, which gives its name to the book and serves to bind the 
narrative together, connecting the past with the present, and 
illustrating a family curse and a disastrous inheritance. 

These topics may be used for short themes or discussions: 

1. Hawthorne’s picture of a New England town. 

2. Characters of a New England town. 

3. Distinguishing features of a colonial house. 

4. The description of the garden. (Compare it with some descrip¬ 
tion from Dickens or Scott; for example, with the description of 
Monsieur’s chateau in "A Tale of Two Cities,” or with that of 
Rotherwood in " Ivanhoe.”) 

The Story and the Incidents. The founder of the family, 
Colonel Pyncheon, had built the house of the seven gables on 
land that he had secured from the Maule family after the execu¬ 
tion of Matthew Maule as a wizard. Maule, believing the Colonel 
largely responsible for his sentence, cursed him from the gallows. 
Hepzibah Pyncheon, a solitary maiden lady descended from 
the Colonel and occupying the family mansion, in her poverty 
opened one of its rooms as a shop and received into her house 
her abused brother Clifford and her young cousin Phoebe. 
After the sudden death of the highly respected Judge Pyncheon, 
the last male representative of his family except the invalid 
Clifford, Phoebe became the wife of a descendant of the wizard 
Maule. Many of the elements of such a narrative are found in 
the history of the Hawthorne family. 

The following are suitable theme subjects: 

1. Relate briefly the story of the Pyncheon family previous to the 
opening of the present account, making clear the relations of Judge 
Pyncheon, Hepzibah, and Clifford. 

2. Is the story improbable? Is it impossible? Select improbabil¬ 
ities or impossibilities if you can find them. 

3. Write a short life of Judge Pyncheon, supplying facts that 
Hawthorne leaves to your imagination. 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


56 

The Characters. As in Hawthorne’s other stories, the char¬ 
acters are few and very carefully drawn. It is less, however, 
from what they do and say than from what the author tells 
about their inner life, that the reader learns what they really are. 
The most prominent among them, the most active, so to speak, 
are Hepzibah, Phoebe, and Holgrave; but Clifford, Uncle Venner, 
Judge Pyncheon, and the urchin who ate Jim Crow are distinctly 
portrayed. These characters are practically all that appear on 
the scene, but in the few weeks during the course of the story 
they are subjected to all the influences of their inheritance, and 
the romance of several generations comes to its culmination. 
Thus the moral of the story is brought out: Colonel Pyncheon’s 
ambition to found a rich and enduring family produced misery 
and, at last, defeat, because the foundation was sinful. 

The following will suggest subjects for themes and discussions: 

1. Compare Hawthorne’s method of delineating character with 
George Eliot’s in " Silas Marner,” and with Dickens’s in "A Tale 
of Two Cities.” 

2. Compare the delineation of Judge Pyncheon’s character with 
that of Uncle Venner. 

3. Which character in the book do you regard as most true to 
life? Had any of the characters a real prototype? 

4. Does Holgrave seem to be a real person? Is the change in his 
point of view too sudden ? 

5. Describe Clifford, Phoebe, Hepzibah, and the hens. 

Construction and Style. The history of the Pyncheons is 
most artistically interwoven with the immediate action of the 
romance. This appears not only from the introductory chapter 
and the interpolated story of Alice Pyncheon, but also in the 
frequent mention of the old Colonel’s portrait, the blooming of 
Alice’s posies in the angle of the gable roof, the reopening of 
the little shop after nearly a century had passed since a former 
Pyncheon had bartered there, the reference to Maule’s well, and 
many other details. All such details aid in giving coherence to 
the long family story, and help the reader to feel its unity from 
the erection of the house of the seven gables to the time that it 


THE HOUSE OF THE SEVEN GABLES 


57 


is abandoned by the last of the Pyncheons. The climax is 
reached when the portrait of the Colonel falls from the wall, 
the lost and now useless deed is discovered, the ambitions of 
the family are proved futile and its splendor is gone; it has 
drunk blood and the curse has been fulfilled. 

The movement is slow on account of Hawthorne’s analytic 
and minutely descriptive method. The story may be regarded 
as descriptive-narrative. It is a series of pictures of the house in 
succeeding generations, each picture symbolical of the fortunes 
of the family and illustrating the power of the curse of inherited 
evil. In fact, the house of the seven gables is at last a symbol 
of the decayed gentility of the family. The recurring pictures 
of its former grandeur and its present decrepitude and loneli¬ 
ness, the scenes in the garden, all gone to waste except for a 
little life that is nourished by Phoebe and Holgrave, and the 
degeneracy of the aristocratic fowls are artistic to the highest 
degree and exhibit Hawthorne’s preeminent ability to illustrate 
human character by means of material objects. 

Hawthorne has a subtle sense of humor. The redundancy 
with which he describes Hepzibah’s pathetic appearance and 
behavior on the day that she opens the shop, and the dignified 
words that are applied to the fowls, as well as many other pas¬ 
sages, show a decided sense of humor, and are perhaps the 
more effective on that account in presenting a clear picture. 

The following are suitable subjects for themes or discussions : 

1. How is the unity of "The House of the Seven Gables’’ 
maintained ? 

2. How much of the interest centers in the relations of Phoebe 
and Holgrave? How important is this affair to the plot? 

3. Of what importance to the coherence of the story is the 
Colonel’s portrait? 

4. Give examples of Hawthorne’s symbolism in this book. (See 
chaps, vi, x.) 

5. Compare the symbolical method of this story with that of 
Hawthorne’s " Scarlet Letter ’’ and Poe’s " Fall of the House of 
Usher.’’ 

6. What makes the description of the storm (chap, xvii) so vivid ? 


58 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


7. How is the atmosphere of mystery created in the book? 

8. Show how the gloom is dispelled when Judge Pyncheon dies, 
and how effectively Hawthorne chooses words to make this clear. 
(See last paragraph of chap, xviii and opening of chap, xix.) 

9. Give examples of the skillful use of words to indicate impend¬ 
ing misfortune (chap, i, the death of Colonel Pyncheon); to produce 
a given effect on the reader without an explicit statement (chap, xviii); 
to create amusement (chap. iii). 

10. Has Hawthorne a fondness for any particular words or ex¬ 
pressions ? 

11. In what respect, if any, do you find this book less interesting 
than Stevenson’s "Treasure Island" or Kipling’s "Captains Cour¬ 
ageous ” ? 

12. Was Hawthorne a close observer of human nature? 

Hawthorne’s Life and Work. Hawthorne was. born in Salem, 
in 1804, of Puritan stock. His father and his father’s father 
were sea captains, and their ancestors had been prominent in 
persecuting the witches. His mother was left a widow when 
Nathaniel was only four years old, and passed the remainder of 
her life in close seclusion, usually remaining in her room and 
even taking her meals alone. This example of isolation prob¬ 
ably accounts to some degree for Hawthorne’s preference for 
seclusion and for his lack of intimacy with any wide circle of 
acquaintances. Perhaps another reason for his love of retire¬ 
ment, in addition to the want of means, was the perfect sym¬ 
pathy which existed between him and his wife, a woman of 
high breeding and superior mind. 

Hawthorne held several political positions, the duties of 
which he disliked exceedingly, but he was glad to hold even 
such uncongenial offices on account of the salaries attached to 
them. Moreover, they gave him suggestions for some of his 
best work. To his position as a customs official in Salem is 
directly due his famous introductory sketch to tf The Scarlet 
Letter.” As American consul at Liverpool, England, he obtained 
the means for extensive travels on the continent, and his stay 
in Rome furnished the necessary local knowledge for " The 
Marble Faun.” 


THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS 


59 


It has frequently been said that Hawthorne was of a morbid 
disposition, and his love of seclusion and, at times, of solitude 
have afforded some basis for the statement. Certain stories of 
his, " The Scarlet Letter,” for instance, have been regarded as 
proof of this. But the gloom and remorse that belong to several 
of his characters, and the minute descriptions of the thoughts 
and emotions of all of them, are not so much the result of morbid 
introspection as of the keen insight of a healthy, penetrating 
mind into the minds of others. 

Julian Hawthorne, Nathaniel’s son, has written an excellent 
account of his father’s life, and the biographies of him by 
Woodberry, Lathrop, and Conway are all good. Particular 
attention should be given to the study of Hawthorne’s early 
life and to his peculiar habits while he was living in Salem. 

Other famous works in addition to those already named are 
"Twice-Told Tales,” "Mosses from an Old Manse,” "The 
Wonder-Book,” and "Tanglewood Tales.” The last two are 
charming reproductions of ancient myths. 

Some one has said that " the shadow of Puritanism ” is over 
Hawthorne’s work. What is meant by the statement ? 

THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS 

Introduction. "The Last of the Mohicans” is a book on 
which pupils need little help. Many boys have a friendly feeling 
for Cooper when they enter the high school. To see that others 
share this feeling and that all know why they enjoy the stories 
of the father of American fiction is the agreeable task of the 
teacher. Fortunately the novel is one which, like Stevenson’s 
"Treasure Island” or "Kidnapped,” most boys like of their 
own accord. Such books make an excellent connecting link 
between the stories that are read regardless of school and 
the more difficult required reading. Whether they are on the 
college-entrance list or not, it is easy to arrange the reading of 
them in such a way that it will be considered a privilege rather 
than a duty. 


6o 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


A good many boys prefer "The Spy”.or "The Deerslayer” 
to this particular novel, and the members of any class can re¬ 
port briefly on so many of Cooper’s works that one who is unfa¬ 
miliar with them can get considerable guidance without any help 
from the teacher. In chronological order the following volumes 
are usually rated as the most interesting and instructive : " The 
Spy,” " The Pioneers,” " The Last of the Mohicans,” " The 
Prairie,” " The Pathfinder,” and " The Deerslayer.” 

The Setting. In 1824 Cooper, with a party of visiting English¬ 
men, made a tour through Saratoga, northward to Glenn’s Falls, 
and thence to lakes George and Champlain, traversing a coun¬ 
try which in the French and Indian wars had been a field of 
carnage. While they were visiting the falls and examining the 
wonderful work of the rushing waters in hollowing out the cav¬ 
erns on the island, one of the party suggested to Cooper that 
the scene of a romance might very appropriately be laid there. 
The suggestion was immediately accepted, and two years later 
a copy of the work was in the hands of the gentleman who had 
made the suggestion. Consult Cooper’s practically flawless In¬ 
troduction ; and for the historical incidents upon which the story 
is based, see the references on page xxii. See also page xix and 
the map. 

The Story and the Incidents. If they are given sufficient time 
for preparation, the members of a class enjoy telling the story 
of'a book they have read. The exercise serves to emphasize 
the essentials and to correct misunderstandings. This book is 
a good one with which to test a class — to see how well they 
can read a book by themselves in a given time, preferably a 
period which they have had a hand in determining. A few such 
questions as these will quicken interest and enable the teacher 
to decide whether the reading has been properly done. 

1. What is the most interesting chapter in the book ? 

2. Name the five or six incidents which on the whole you like best. 

3. Is the love story an important part of this novel ? In answering 
this question refer to "Jvanhoe” or " Lorna Doone,” or any other 
novels with which you are familiar. 


THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS 


6l 


4. Do you care to read more novels like this one ? 

5. What knowledge of Indians have you gained from Cooper? 

6. Which of his Indian characters pleases you most, and in 
what ways? 

7. What traits in the three Indians impress you most favorably? 

8. Explain in full how Cora, Alice, Heyward, and the others came 
to be at Glenn’s Falls, and tell their experiences. 

9. To what tribe did Magua belong? (See p. 118, 1 . 9.) How 
did he come to be with Hawkeye and the others at the island? 
(See p. 14, 1 . 13.) 

10. What finally became of the party at Glenn’s Falls? (See 
pp. 109 ff.) 

The Characters. Name the important characters. Which char¬ 
acter is the basest ? What seems to be his main purpose in life ? 
Which characters are the strongest ? the weakest ? Are the 
characters much like those in other books you have read, or are 
they original ? (See p. xviii.) Does either daughter of Colonel 
Munro remind you of any character in "Ivanhoe”? If so, in 
what ways ? Do you feel as well acquainted with Cora as with 
Rebecca or Rowena ? with Hawkeye or Uncas as with Ivanhoe? 
Why did Cooper permit Uncas, the most alert and versatile of 
all the party, to be killed by the ingrate Magua ? 

Write short themes on the following subjects: 

1. Any two of these characters: Hawkeye, Cora, Chingachgook, 
David, the last of the Mohicans. 

2. Cooper’s knowledge of Indians. (See p. xii, and Parkman’s 
" Oregon Trail,” chap, xi.) 

Construction and Style. In what person is the story told ? 
How does the novel compare in this respect with " Ivanhoe,” 
"Quentin Durward ” and others? See the questions on Black- 
more’s " Lorna Doone,” under "Construction and Style.” Is 
Cooper as slow in getting under way as some other writers 
whom you know ? Does he indulge as often in repetitions and 
digressions ? (See p. xviii.) Do you consider the action rapid ? 
(See pp. xviii-xix.) Have you noticed any peculiarities of 
style in "The Last of the Mohicans”? Is the explanation of 


62 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Cooper’s so-called offenses against the present literary taste on 
pages xix-xx satisfactory ? 

Select two passages that pleased you, and explain why they 
pleased you. 

Do you consider " The Last of the Mohicans ” as good a 
story as some others of Cooper’s ? Discuss fully. 

Cooper’s Life and Work. Those who wish to be well informed 
concerning Cooper as man and author are referred to Professor 
Lounsbury’s " Life ” and to the standard histories of American 
literature. (See pp. xxi-xxii of the Introduction to "The Last 
of the Mohicans.”) 

What three subjects most interested him throughout life? 
(See p. x.) 

Why may he be regarded as the father of American fiction ? 

He was hopeful, active, useful. Can you prove it ? 

DAVID COPPERFIELD 

Introduction. Readers of Dickens’s works have agreed with 
him that " David Copperfield ” has more personal charm than 
any other of his longer novels; and, as is pointed out in the 
Introduction and the Notes, one of the chief reasons for this 
lies in the fact that a large portion of the work is autobiograph¬ 
ical. It was one of Dickens’s literary habits to introduce into his 
novels characters taken from real life, and in this one he has 
perhaps drawn more largely from his immediate surroundings 
than in any other. Inasmuch as the book is a study of char¬ 
acters rather than a novel of incident (see Introduction), and 
since the incidents serve as backgrounds for the characters, a 
rapid reading, though exceedingly interesting, must be followed 
by a second reading of a few of the chapters, if the pupil is to 
gain a full acquaintance with the characters and with the mar¬ 
velous skill of the author in their delineation. 

But beyond this first purpose, to tell a story of real life filled 
with live and interesting characters, lies a further purpose,— to 
give us higher ideals of life. We must learn the true worth of 


DAVID COPPERFIELD 


63 


sympathy; the dangerous and far-reaching effects of hypocrisy 
and hard-heartedness and pride; and, above all, the fact that 
goodness and badness are real things in life, and bring with 
them their reward or punishment. 

It may be well not to read the Introduction until the story 
has been read at least once. Then it should be studied for the 
purpose of seeing whether, in his life and in his other writings, 
Dickens shows us any interesting parallels with this novel. 

The Setting. Study a map of England for the chief places 
mentioned in this story. How was it that Dickens came to 
know these places so intimately ? (See Introduction.) If you 
can, consult one or more of the following books that describe 
London in Dickens’s time: Besant, " London in the Nineteenth 
Century”; Hare, "Walks in London”; Lang, " Literary Lon¬ 
don”; Hutton, "Literary Landmarks of London”; Fitzgerald, 
" Bozland.” Does Dickens’s description fit the scenes as they 
are described in these books ? Compare Dickens’s use of local 
color with Blackmore’s in " Lorna Doone,” or Thackeray’s in 
" Henry Esmond.” Why was Dickens so fond of London ? 
Compare his pictures of London in this story with those in 
"Old Curiosity Shop” or "Oliver Twist.” What scenes in 
the story do you consider chiefly worth a visit? 

The following subjects are suggested for short themes or 
class discussions: 

1. London streets to a waif. 

2. An English fisherman’s cottage. 

3. A country church and churchyard. 

4. Coaching days. 

5. English inns. 

6. Poor schools. (Compare with Squeers’s school in " Nicholas 
Nickleby.”) 

7. Good schools. (Compare with "Tom Brown’s School Days.”) 

The Story and the Incidents. Does the novel seem to have a 
main plot ? (See Introduction.) Compare it in this respect with 
Scott’s "Ivanhoe” or "The Talisman,” or with some modern 
novel, such as Miss Johnston’s " To Have and To Hold.” What 


6 4 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


connection with the story have such incidents as the Martha 
episode (chap, xxii), or the tea at the Heeps’ (chap, xvii), or 
any episode, like those, that seems to have little connection 
with the thread of the story ? 

If by poetic justice we mean the rewarding of the good and 
the punishing of the bad characters, how has Dickens managed 
to preserve poetic justice ? Compare David’s journey to Dover 
(chap, xiii) with Oliver Twist’s journey to London. Compare 
the general character of the plot with that of "A Tale of Two 
Cities.” Contrast the love stories of Dora and of Agnes. Which 
do you prefer ? Why ? Contrast these stories with similar inci¬ 
dents in "Pendennis,” which may be said to be Thackeray’s 
autobiographical novel. Why is Dickens’s novel more widely 
popular than Thackeray’s ? 

The following are subjects for themes: 

1. Relate briefly the incidents that had most to do in molding 
David’s life. (The following may serve as aids for discovering more : 
the meeting with Emily, chap, iii; the flogging, chap, iv; the death 
of David’s mother, chap, ix.) 

2. Life at Murdstone and Grinby’s, and similar experiences in 
Dickens’s life. (See Introduction.) 

3. The story of Uriah Heep. 

4. An apology for Mr. Micawber. 

The Characters. From how many different classes in society 
has Dickens drawn his characters in this novel ? Which char¬ 
acters are the most interesting and the best drawn ? What traits 
are shown in the first view of Steerforth and Little Em’ly that lead 
to the final catastrophe ? (See chaps, iii, vi, vii.) What is your 
opinion of Peggotty, Aunt Betsey, Traddles, Mrs. Micawber ? 
It is often said that Dickens made his characters all good or 
all bad. Do you agree with this remark ? Compare " David 
Copperfield” in this respect with "Old Curiosity Shop,” "Dom- 
bey and Son,” and "A Tale of Two Cities.” How do Dickens’s 
characters differ from those in "Treasure Island” or " Henry 
Esmond”? What do the following characters have to do'with 
the story: Uriah Heep, Dr. Chillip, Ham Peggotty, Mr. Mell, 


DAVID COPPERFIELD 


65 


Dr. Strong, Jack Maldon, Rosa Dartle ? Compare Dr. Strong 
with Dr. Primrose in "The Vicar of Wakefield.” Are there any 
characters that appear exaggerated ? 

The following subjects may be used for short themes: 

1. The development of the character of David. 

2. Uriah Heep’s humility. 

3. Mr. Murdstone’s firmness. 

4. False pride in the Steerforth family. 

5. Contrast the home life of the Peggottys with that of the Steer- 
forths. 

Construction and Style. Compare the method of telling this 
story with that used in "Ivanhoe,” "Henry Esmond,” "Loma 
Doone.” How does the autobiographical form of writing deter¬ 
mine the selection of material ? (See the Introduction, and the 
Introduction to " Loma Doone.”) Are there any things told that 
the author did not personally experience ? How ? Are there any 
digressions ? (For example, chap, vii, the visit of the Peggottys 
to Salem House; and chap, ix, Mr. Omer.) What is their pur¬ 
pose ? Could you spare any chapters ? Are there any chapters 
that are almost dramatic in form, and which, with slight alter¬ 
ations, could be acted ? (For example, chaps, xlv, lii.) 

Subjects for themes and discussions: 

1. How does Dickens introduce his characters ? (See his introduc¬ 
tion of Steerforth, chaps, v, vi; and of Emily, chap, iii.) 

2. Dickens’s use of dialogue as a means of explaining character. 

3. Dickens’s power of describing natural scenery. 

Dickens’s Life and Work. How much of "David Copper- 
field” is Dickens’s autobiography? (See Introduction.) What 
did Dickens gain from foreign travel ? What was his first start 
in literature ? How was he peculiarly fitted to write the kind 
of novels he attempted ? What effect did his love of the stage 
have upon his writing ? (See Introduction.) Compare his life 
with that of Scott, Thackeray, Hawthorne. What did he think 
of America? (Read his "American Notes,” and see Introduc¬ 
tion.) What is the purpose of some of his other novels with 
which you are familiar ? 


66 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


A TALE OF TWO CITIES 

Introduction. During the first rapid reading of "A Tale of 
Two Cities it will be very helpful to the pupil if the teacher 
will point out the difference between the more and the less 
important characters. Such help will prevent the perplexity and 
distaste that young readers often feel in beginning Dickens, 
before the sweep of the story catches their interest. In the later 
study many passages should be read aloud. The dramatic effect 
of some scenes (see pp. 349-362) will be better appreciated if 
they are read like extracts from a play. It is sometimes a good 
plan to have committees appointed from the class to arrange 
for such presentations. 

The Setting. For making the places seem real, the class may 
become a travelers’ club, writing letters as if from London and 
Paris. Pictures and maps may be used to give a better idea 
of the two cities. Hare’s " Walks in London ” and " Walks in 
Paris ” will be helpful in this work. " The French Revolution,” by 
Professor Shailer Mathews of The University of Chicago (pub¬ 
lished by the Chautauqua Press), is a simple and clear work deal¬ 
ing with the period. Three works of fiction by French authors 
may be recommended without hesitation to those who would 
read more about the times : Victor Hugo’s thrilling " Ninety- 
three,” which shows a spirit much like that of Dickens’s novel; 
Balzac’s short story, "An Episode under the Terror,” which, with 
artistic skill, preserves and at the proper time reveals the identity 
of a mysterious person; and Erckmann-Chatrian’s quieter " Ma¬ 
dame Therese,” which depicts events as seen by a boy’s eyes. 

Using books from the list on page xiv, the class will find the 
following subjects suitable for themes: 

1. My adventures in Paris during the Revolution. (Write an imagi¬ 
nary reminiscence.) 

2. A famous person of the Revolution. (An exercise in description, 
to be based on photographs and reading, and to be tested by “reading 
before the class, to see if the subject can be named.) 

3. The story of Louis XVII. 


A TALE OF TWO CITIES 


67 

The Story and the Incidents. Owing largely to Dickens’s 
" suggestive ” style, there are. many matters that are often pain¬ 
fully obscure to a young reader. Some quiet help on these 
points is likely to increase greatly the zest with which he will 
take hold of the work. Such points are the following: the first 
chapter as a whole ; the message " Recalled to life ” (p. 9), and 
Lorry’s wild dreams thereafter; the significance of the spilled 
wine (p. 32); the constant use of the name Jacques (pp. 37, 194, 
254); Defarge’s relation to Dr. Manette (p. 28); the real nature 
of the " papers ” Charles Darnay was seen to have on his trips 
between England and France (pp. 85, 285); Sydney Carton’s 
part in the Old Bailey trial (pp. 84-87); the same man’s role as 
jackal (pp. 98 f.); the significance of the chapter Monseigneur 
in Town, beginning on page 120; the identity and story of 
Gaspard (pp. 35, 127-129, 133, 139, 150, 195-200); the figura¬ 
tive use of the term " Gorgon’s head ” in the chapter beginning 
on page 137; the reason for the Jacquerie’s dooming the Mar¬ 
quis’s chateau and his race to destruction (p. 201); the grue¬ 
some nature of Jerry Cruncher’s avocation (pp. 11, 179-191, 
359-360); the relation between Damay’s story of the prisoner 
in London Tower (p. 116) and Dr. Manette’s own imprison¬ 
ment in the Bastille; the vague suggestions of perplexity and 
apprehension on Dr. Manette’s part at times in Darnay’s 
presence (pp. 92, 117, 159, 227, 237); Defarge’s purpose in 
ransacking Dr. Manette’s old cell when the Bastille is taken 
(pp. 257,377); John Barsad’s part in the plot (pp. 76, 77, no, 
348-362, 415, 419); the general background of the French 
Revolution. 

If the story were told in strict chronological order, what events 
would come first ? Compare the dramatization of the novel en¬ 
titled "The Only Way.” How long a period is covered by the 
story ? What details or expressions on pages 9, 29, 32, 85, no, 
116, 145, 159, and 221 prepare the reader for later events? 
What is suggested but not mentioned on pages 227-228 ? Why 
and how does the author postpone an important revelation on 
pages 257-258? 


68 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


These subjects may be useful for themes: 

1. A newspaper report of Darnay’s trial at the Old Bailey. 

2. An account of Dr. Manette’s imprisonment as his servant would 
have told it. 

3. Barsad’s report of his experiences in Paris. 

4. Darnay’s story of his escape. 

5. His wife!s story of the same event. 

6. Madame Defarge’s story of her family. 

The Characters. Count the characters to see how many would 
be required to produce "A Tale of Two Cities” as a play. 
How does the number compare with the number of people in 
" Ivanhoe,” " Silas Marner,” or " David Copperfield ” ? Do the 
people more nearly resemble those of " Ivanhoe ” or those of 
" Silas Marner ” ? Which characters in "A Tale of Two Cities ” 
become worse or better as the story proceeds ? Does the author 
show sympathy or antipathy for Darnay ? for Manette ? for 
Barsad ? for Carton ? Do Miss Pross, Mr. Lorry, and the 
Crunchers seem true to life or merely caricatures ? Group the 
characters according to nationality; according to occupation or 
rank; according to friendliness or enmity towards Darnay. Which 
characters do you recall more easily and vividly, Miss Manette 
or Madame Defarge ? Charles Darnay or Sydney Carton ? Had 
Dickens a purpose in this emphasis, or does it seem a mistake ? 
Why was young Jerry included ? Was Madame Defarge more 
or less vindictive than Shylock ? 

Construction and Style. In what person is the story told ? 
Why would it be impossible to tell it in the same person as 
" Lorna Doone ” and " David Copperfield ” ? What causes the 
amusement on pages 179-192 ? What figures of speech does 
Dickens use most frequently, as shown by the first chapter ? 
What allusions explained on pages 449-455 help to prove or 
disprove the last sentence in the second paragraph of the In¬ 
troduction (pp. vii-viii) ? Why would many French words be 
expected on pages 120-150? Pick out some striking examples 
of Dickens’s method of emphasizing an expression by frequent 
repetition. 


HENRY ESMOND 


*69 

Dickens’s Life and Work. What facts from those on pages 
vii-ix would Dickens have furnished for a publication like 
" Who’s Who ” ? What traits and efforts explained in the first 
chapter of Ward’s M Charles Dickens,” or in the third and fourth 
chapters of Forster’s " Life of Charles Dickens,” led to success ? 
How old was the author when he wrote "A Tale of Two Cities ” ? 
What proportion of his work preceded it according to the table 
on page xv ? What passages recall his experiences as court 
reporter ? What parts reveal his sympathy with the poor ? To 
what extent does this story show that Dickens could not draw 
sympathetic pictures of all classes of people ? 

Every pupil should read " A Christmas Carol.” The order 
for reading the stories mentioned above is immaterial, but most 
of them should probably precede " Pickwick Papers.” 

HENRY ESMOND 

Introduction. It is to be noted that this novel, besides pre¬ 
senting us with several very interesting characters, also exhibits 
a well-constructed plot which advances in a natural and orderly 
development from the first page to the last. The setting gives 
a carefully drawn and essentially true picture of the various 
phases of English national life in the reign of Queen Anne. 
The characters mold their surroundings and are molded by 
them, each thus progressing to the fulfillment of his own des¬ 
tiny, just as happens in real life. 

The Setting. Before beginning the novel the pupil should 
read pages x and xi of the Introduction so that he may under¬ 
stand from the first what use Thackeray has made of the his¬ 
torical background. Unless he remembers that the setting is as 
essential a part of the novel as the story, he may sometimes 
grow impatient because, as in Book II, the movement of the 
story is slow. In reading this section of the novel it will be well 
to notice that the author, while emphasizing history for history’s 
sake, also makes the stories of the campaigns play a necessary 
part in the development of the plot. Thackeray made "realistic” 


7 ° 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


use of history; that is, he showed the conditions of the eighteenth- 
century life, both civil and military, just as he thought they 
actually were. 

Can you show how the Vigo Bay campaign or the battle of 
Blenheim serve in themselves to carry forward the story ? Can 
you show that Dick Steele is an actor in the cast of the story ? 
Can you show that Addison and Swift, though not actors, are 
useful to the story because they help us to realize the " atmos¬ 
phere ” ? Doubtless you have read ” Ivanhoe.” Compare 
Thackeray’s use of history with Scott’s. One is " realistic,” 
the other " romantic.” 

For themes or discussions consider: 

1. The no-popery mob. (Read chap, iv, and see any English 
history.) 

2. Smallpox in the eighteenth century. 

3. The coffeehouse. 

4. Gambling in the Queen Anne period. 

5. Pamphleteering. 

These are suggested from among dozens of interesting sub¬ 
jects that may be selected, some knowledge of which will add 
to the pleasure and profit to be derived from reading the novel. 
See the closing paragraph on page xiv for some references. 
The " English Humourists ” is especially enlightening. 

The Story and the Incidents. The plot of this novel depends 
upon the relation of Henry Esmond to the Castlewood family. 
Any one who cares to do so may make a table from chapter ii, 
showing the family relationship from Edward, Earl and Marquis 
of Esmond, down to two-year-old Frank. Why do you think 
Thomas had Henry Esmond brought to Castlewood ? When 
Thomas Esmond fell at the battle of the Boyne, what great 
change did it make in the life of Henry ? Why was Lady Castle¬ 
wood so angry when Henry took the smallpox ? Why did she 
send Henry to college ? Does the difference in age help to 
account for the growing separation between Lord and Lady 
Castlewood ? Show how the intimacy of Mohun and Castle¬ 
wood is of vital importance to the plot. Why does Thackeray 


HENRY ESMOND 


7 1 


call Mohun Henry when his real name was Charles ? What 
secret did Lord Castlewood impart to Henry as he lay dying ? 
What difference would it have made in the rest of the story 
if Henry had not burned the papers ? Who was M. Simon ? 
What part does Frank play in bringing the prince to England ? 
Show that the prince kept himself from the English throne. 
These subjects are suitable for short themes: 

1. Tom Esmond thrashes a bully. 

2. Henry’s first fight. 

3. Esmond and his tutor. 

4. If you have read Irving’s " Life of Goldsmith,” compare 
Esmond and Goldsmith in their relation to their tutors. 

5. The effect of Beatrix’s beauty upon the prince. 

The Characters. In " Henry Esmond ” three characters hold 
the place of chief interest throughout the story, namely, Henry, 
Lady Castlewood, and Beatrix. Can you show that of these 
Beatrix possessed the greatest possibilities of development? 
Her story is a tragedy of failure. Can you ' account for it ? 
Henry Esmond’s story is a triumph of character development ? 
Can you show that this was the outgrowth of the unfolding of 
hereditary virtues and the avoidance of hereditary weaknesses ? 
How and when did Tom Esmond exhibit the Esmond virtues ? 
How and when did Francis, fourth Viscount ? What traits of 
character in Beatrix do you think she inherited directly from 
her mother? What characters, to whom prominence is given, 
could be omitted without materially changing the story ? Why 
do you think Thackeray introduced them ? 

These subjects are suitable for short themes or talks: 

1. Father Holt’s place in the novel. 

2. The dowager. 

3. Esmond’s affection for General Webb. 

4. The Duke of Hamilton. 

Construction and Style. Notice that this story is written in 
the form of an autobiography in which the writer speaks of 
himself in the third person. Point out instances where this 


72 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


accounts for peculiarities of style. (See pp. xii, xiii.) What effect 
did Thackeray gain by the occasional footnotes? Can you 
detect details of style which seem to you probable copies of 
eighteenth-century usages? (See p. 395.) Show that the plot 
is well constructed. Call attention, if possible, to the fine way 
in which several lines of story converge in the denouement 
when Henry and Frank forestall the Prince and Beatrix. 

Thackeray’s Life and Work. What was Thackeray before he 
established his place in the literary world ? (See p. vii.) Does 
he give you the impression that he has seen what he describes, 
or that he is a skillful inventor of scenes ? Did he have a strong 
sympathy for what is good ? (See pp. vii-viii.) What is worth 
remembering in connection with his venture as editor in i860 ? 
(See p. viii.) Under what great shadow did he work cheerfully 
for many years ? (See p. viii.) 

Naturally every reader of Thackeray will compare him with 
the two great contemporary novelists, Dickens and George Eliot. 
It should be enough to say that every educated person must read 
widely in all three. They have few points of likeness, though each 
in his own way expresses the spirit of the nineteenth century. 
Think over the books you have read of each, and see what 
differences of style, treatment of subject, and point of view you 
can observe. Do they write of people similar in character and 
set in similar surroundings ? What characteristic differences in 
use of words, structure of sentences, and construction of para¬ 
graphs can you think of ? Do you suppose their widely different 
personal circumstances in their early years had something to do 
with the differences you have noticed ? By referring to the biog¬ 
raphies of each writer, indicate the course of training that each 
had before he became popular. Why should Dickens, who was 
younger than Thackeray, have attained fame ten years earlier ? 
Thackeray has been called an artist, Dickers a caricaturist. Do 
you consider that a fair distinction between the two ? Which of 
the three authors has done most to lighten heavy hearts ? Which 
of them often attacked shams ? Is there a notable absence of 
gentlemen and gentlewomen in the works of any one of them ? 


MRS. GASKELL’S CRANFORD 


73 


CRANFORD 

Introduction. The young reader will discover for himself, 
without the help of the Introduction, that besides an amusing 
narrative, very simple in construction, he has here a study of 
manners in a quiet English village and the sympathetic portrayal 
of characters which, while humorous, represent noble and lovable 
types. As a result, or after a more leisurely study of the work, 
he may be glad to know, of the other books mentioned on page 
xxii which suggest comparison with " Cranford.” In " Silas 
Marner,” " Adam Bede,” and " The Mill on the Floss ” will be 
found a portrayal of English rural life, which in some particu¬ 
lars suggests that to be found in " Cranford.” Miss Mitford’s 
" Our Village,” although different in form, furnished Mrs. Gas- 
kell with suggestions at least, and will be enjoyed by any reader 
of " Cranford,” although he may not care to read it entire. See 
also the Study of " The Vicar of Wakefield.” 

Of Mrs. Gaskell’s other writings (see pp. xiv, xv) the novel 
" Mary Barton ” is the strongest, while " Cousin Phillis ” and 
others of the short stories are more cheerful in tone; but none 
of these narratives can compare with " Cranford ” in vivacity 
and humor. 

The Setting. The author gives us a clear description of 
the village, its social atmosphere and local types. Describe its 
peculiarities in these respects. What is the real name of the 
town pictured in " Cranford ” ? What city is referred to as 
Drumble ? How did the author become familiar with the life 
here depicted ? 

The following subjects are suggested as appropriate for themes: 

1. Social functions and diversions in Cranford. 

2. The Cranford aristocracy. 

3. Domestic economy in Cranford. 

The Story and the Incidents. The chief interest in " Cran¬ 
ford ” lies with the characters rather than with the incidents as 
incidents. The latter are generally used to bring out the traits 


74 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


of the people portrayed and not to excite an interest in them¬ 
selves. Do you recollect other works of fiction, read by you, of 
which the same thing may be said ? Mention some in which 
the reverse is true. Suppose " The Vicar of Wakefield ” and 
" Robinson Crusoe ” cited as representing the two types of 
fiction; can you tell to which type each belongs ? Discuss the 
incidents in chapters i and ii with reference to the peculiar traits 
of the characters introduced. Mention other incidents similarly 
employed in the later chapters. There are, however, some inci¬ 
dents in the story that serve a different purpose and that belong 
to what, possibly, we may call the plot, although the plot is 
very slight in " Cranford.” These have to do with the story 
of Poor Peter; they serve as links in the chain of the narra¬ 
tive. Indicate some incidents of this type in chapter vi. In 
this connection explain the importance of the events recorded 
in chapters ix and xi. Incidents of this kind may of course 
contribute to the portrayal of character as well. Can you illus¬ 
trate this ? On the whole, what incidents in " Cranford ” con¬ 
tribute most to the interest of the work ? Can you tell why ? 

The following exercises are suggested: 

1. Write in your own way the story of Miss Matty’s romance. 

2. Tell the story of Poor Peter from his own point of view. 

3. Compose a narrative of your own which shall portray one 
or two interesting types of character (not by description, but by 
incident). 

4. Give a description- of society in your own town. 

The Characters. How many characters enter prominently 
into this narrative ? Name the "Amazons.” Which member of 
this group appears to be most important to the story ? Why ? 
Discuss the traits common to all. Should you say that these 
characters are purely fanciful creations, or do they represent 
types that might actually be met in similar surroundings ? 
Describe the personal peculiarities of Miss Deborah Jenkins; 
of Miss Matty. Some of the characters give a humorous turn 
to certain scenes. Do they seem to be introduced merely 
for this purpose ? Explain the relation of Martha’s courtship 


MRS. GASKELL’S CRANFORD 


75 


to the main thread of the story. If you have read " David 
Copperfield,” make some comparison between the characters 
in the two books. Did Mrs. Gaskell have prototypes for any 
of her characters ? (See pp. ix, x, xxi.) 

The following subjects are suggested for themes: 

1. A portrait of .the rector. 

2. The personality of Peter. 

3. A study of Miss Pole. 

4. A comparison between Mrs. Jamieson and Lady Glenmire. 

5. Friends in need. 

6. The men in Cranford. 

7.. Miss Matty’s philosophy. 

8. The influence of Dr. Johnson in " Cranford.” 

Construction and Style. The peculiar construction of " Cran¬ 
ford ” is explained at length on pages xvi and xvii. Why are 
the successive chapters described as sketches ? Can you name 
other works of fiction that have a similar structure ? Compare 
the " Sir Roger de Coverley Papers ” and " Silas Marner ” with 
" Cranford ” in this respect. How does the author secure a 
measure of unity in <f Cranford ” ? Select some scene notable 
for humor; one distinguished by pathos. Read the paragraph 
on " Cranford’s ” place in English fiction (p. xxii); support, if 
you can, the statements there made, by citations from the text. 

Discuss the following topics : 

1. Devices for strengthening unity. (See p. xvii.) 

2. The incident of the panic; preparation for its introduction, 
and its importance in the story. (Let the student trace all prelimi¬ 
nary allusions, and all the effects produced by it.) 

3. The episode of Signor Brunoni, and its relation to the plot. 

Mrs. GaskelPs Life and Work. Discuss the personality of 
Mrs. Gaskell as shown in her philanthropy and in her literary 
work. (See pp. xii-xiv.) Who were her personal friends among 
people of note ? (See p. xv.) Describe her acquaintance with 
Dickens. (See p. xiii.) What do you consider her aim in the 
composition of " Cranford ” ? What would you say of her 
ideals of life and conduct, judging from this book? 


76 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


SILAS MARNER 

Introduction. After the first reading of " Silas Marner ” for 
the mere story, — say in two or three assignments, — the class 
should read and discuss carefully, point by point, the Introduc¬ 
tion, pages xv-xviii. With this light thrown upon the author’s 
attitude toward her own work, the class is ready for more 
minute study. The Explanatory Notes, pages 235-245, should 
of course accompany the first reading. While the intensive 
study of the book, which should occupy at least eight or ten 
periods, is progressing, it would be wise to have the class read 
"Adam Bede” or "The Mill on the Floss,” to deepen and fix an 
impression of the powerful moral and philosophic tone of all of 
George Eliot’s works, and to show how simple, in comparison 
with the two earlier novels, was the conception and execution 
of " Silas Marner.” 

The Setting. " Silas Marner ” makes no pretension to any 
historical setting, like " Ivanhoe ”; nor to any setting of special 
social significance, like "Vanity Fair”; nor to a setting essentially 
romantic in itself, like " Kidnapped.” Therefore no collateral 
reading to fix place or time is needed. The time and place 
are what they are simply because the writer lived when and 
where she did.* Her part of Yorkshire is so devoid of interest 
that illustrators have walked the length and breadth of its 
barren moors in an almost fruitless search for houses, trees, 
rivers, or lesser literary landmarks made famous by her novels. 
The background of " Silas Marner,” in striking contrast to 
" Lorna Doone,” for example, is not to be known by photo¬ 
graphs, descriptions by other writers, or even by personal 
observation. The weaver’s cottage, the Rainbow, the Red 
House, might be found in any English village a hundred years 
ago. Barrenness, however, in itself may be a powerful element 
in a novel, as in " Jane Eyre only here George Eliot did not 
choose to make her setting play an indispensable part in her 
story. The Stone-pit comes the nearest to being a "stage set¬ 
ting”; but how little dramatic importance she gave to it we 


SILAS MARNER 


77 


can feel at once when we compare it with her use of the 
Floss in "The Mill on the Floss/’ in which her art is decidedly 
more conscious and more dramatic. The time setting of " Silas 
Marner,” too, is unobtrusive. Given vaguely in the first chapter 
as the days when " even great ladies had their toy spinning 
wheels of polished oak ” and " superstition clung easily round 
every person or thing that was at all unwonted,” it changes 
only as the years pass, with the exception of the one jump of 
sixteen years between Part I and Part II. There is practically 
no deliberate manipulation of either time or place for emotional 
effect, although at times — but even these are few — an event 
has its own dramatic background, as the Rainbow on the even¬ 
ing when Silas goes there for help in his trouble; or the gay 
New Year’s party at Squire Cass’s, when Silas appears with 
Godfrey’s child in his arms. This does not mean that George 
Eliot is weak in describing scenes; her power of selecting the 
detail necessary for any picture she chooses to draw, and of 
creating an atmosphere that can be felt, can be seen in any 
chapter of " Silas Marner.” Her method may be imitated by 
students with the following subjects for short themes: 

1. A weaver’s kitchen. (See chaps, ii, x.) 

2. Story hour at the Rainbow. (See chap, vi.) 

3. The Stone-pits. 

The simplicity of George Eliot’s settings may be realized by 
comparing them with the elaborate detail of Scott’s or Dickens’s. 

The Story and the Incidents. The discussion of the argument 
and incidents of the story should be based upon the questions 
on Subject Matter (pp. 247-248), Materials (p. 249), Purpose 
(p. 252). It should be remembered always that we are deal¬ 
ing with a story whose problem is a moral question, whose 
theme is a moral truth, and whose stages are the simple normal 
stages of development in the characters, Silas Marner and God¬ 
frey Cass. (See Notes, p. 247.) It is not a love story; it is not 
a historical romance; it is not a story of adventure; it is not 
a conventional problem-novel; it is not a novel of manners. 


78 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


It is a simple story told with Scriptural earnestness and direct¬ 
ness, to force home the truth that every sin brings sooner or 
later its own punishment, not only to those who do the wrong 
but to all those closely or remotely connected with them. To 
test the simplicity of the novel the following questions may be 
discussed : What is its central theme ? Are there any secondary 
themes ? Compare it in this respect with " David Copperfield ” 
or "Ivanhoe.” What incidents are indispensable to the plot? 
Compare them with those in " Ivanhoe,” or " Kidnapped,” or 
"Vanity Fair.” Are there any incidents that do not bear upon 
the central theme ? Why do other writers introduce such inci¬ 
dents in great number? Why has George Eliot avoided them 
in " Silas Marner ” ? How does her theme here give a chance 
for pathos ? for humor ? for philosophy ? 

Short themes may be written upon these subjects: 

1. The simplicity of the plot of " Silas Marner.” 

2. Five dramatic incidents in " Silas Marner ” and their bearing 
upon the plot. 

3. The most pathetic episode (a plot incident with all its support¬ 
ing incidents) in " Silas Marner.” 

4. The most humorous situation in " Silas Marner.” 

5. George Eliot’s wit and wisdom. 

The Characters. Why are such extended descriptions given 
in chapters vi and xi of the scenes in the Rainbow Inn and at 
the New Year’s Eve ball ? Notice that these scenes are the back¬ 
grounds against which Silas stands out in two great crises of his 
Raveloe life, — the loss of his gold, and the finding of Eppie. 
What was the other great crisis in his life ? Are there any per¬ 
sons in " Silas Marner ” who are wholly good or wholly bad ? 
altogether strong or altogether weak ? entirely happy and pros¬ 
perous or entirely miserable and unfortunate ? How far do 
William Dane, Godfrey, Dunstan, Tookey, Eppie, Molly, Silas, 
get fair treatment in the story ? How far do any characters have 
to suffer for other people’s misdeeds ? How do you justify an au¬ 
thor’s allowing such suffering ? Do you know any stories where 
everything ends happily, with every mystery precisely explained 


SILAS MARNER 


79 


and every disappointment adequately compensated ? Which of 
the two kinds of story do you prefer ? Which is more lifelike ? 
Can you show that different purposes or different ideas of life 
may lead authors to handle their characters in very varying ways ? 

Thackeray called his "Vanity Fair” a "novel without a 
hero.” Has " Silas Marner ” a hero ? In what senses may the 
word " hero ” be applied to characters in stories and in real 
life ? In what important ways do any of the persons in " Silas 
Marner ” change in character or purpose during the course of 
the story ? Do these changes come about abruptly, or gradually 
and naturally ? How do you get acquainted with the characters, 
— by George Eliot’s descriptions of their physical appearance, 
dress, and mannerisms ? by her quoting their conversation ? by 
her explanations of their ways of thinking about things ? by her 
accounts of them as they do things ? Which of these ways of 
presenting a character do you like best ? By which of these 
means do you most often judge the average person you meet 
just once or know only a little ? How many people in real life 
have you ever thought about seriously in all four ways ? 

Suitable subjects for themes are these: 

1. Dolly Winthrop’s philosophy of life. 

2. Silas Marner as a disciplinarian. 

3. Dunstan, the " lucky fellow.” 

4. The autocrat of Raveloe (Mr. Macey). 

5. The peacemaker (Mr. Snell). 

6. Godfrey’s great mistake. 

An interesting oral exercise is to have a class characterize in 
fifteen or twenty words every character in the book. 

Construction and Style. For satisfactory work upon these 
points a simple analysis of the entire work should be made, —• 
one topic will usually suffice for a whole chapter. Make a list 
of the chapters concerned chiefly with Silas; of those concerned 
with Godfrey Cass; and of those in which the two interests be¬ 
come one. This makes a plain chart for working out the simple 
construction of the whole book. The following questions will 
bring out the chief points: How many chapters are concerned 


8o 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


wholly with Silas ? How many with 'Godfrey ? Where do their 
two threads begin to be woven together ? What is the starting 
point then of the real plot ? Is the introduction too long ? What 
is its chief purpose ? Are there any other threads of interest ? 
If so, why are they introduced ? Is the pattern of this weaving 
simple or complicated in comparison with Thackeray’s method ? 
Dickens’s ? Scott’s ? Stevenson’s ? How, then, would you char¬ 
acterize the construction of " Silas Marner ” ? At this point the 
class is ready for the questions on Structure (pp. 248-249). 

Note how the author conceals the fate of Dunstan from the 
reader, yet makes it absolutely natural when finally discovered. 
Mark the rise of the reader’s interest in Silas step by step; in 
Godfrey. Do these two unite at the highest point of interest, 
or just before ? Why? What are the obstacles to Silas Marner’s 
development ? to Godfrey Cass’s ? Can there be interest in 
plot or character without such obstacles ? These questions 
should be followed by those on Plan of Narrative (pp. 248- 
249), and on Plot (p. 250). 

For a detailed study of George Eliot’s style one chapter may 
be selected and studied minutely, with the general impressions 
of the first reading to supplement detailed work. The first 
chapter, being so simple a piece of narrative, is a good one for 
examination. If the topic of each paragraph is written down, a 
careful discussion of paragraph construction, massing, and tran¬ 
sition can be profitably made. One or two paragraphs in the 
chapter can be chosen for discussing the topics suggested under 
Style (p. 251). The questions on Method (p. 251), should 
then follow. This work must necessarily correlate with any 
rhetoric the class may be using, but Genung’s " Practical Rhet¬ 
oric” is both specific and literary in its exposition of the points 
under discussion, and should at least be used by the teacher. 
George Eliot’s method of story-telling can then be compared 
with some degree of definiteness with that of Dickens, Scott, 
and Stevenson. Good subjects for themes are these: 

1. Why is George Eliot’s style considered formal ? 

2. George Eliot’s love of commenting upon her characters. 


LORNA DOONE 


8l 


3. Contrast George Eliot’s handling of a dramatic situation with 
Dickens’s. 

4. Why is " Silas Marner ” called a prose idyl ? (See questions 
on " The Vicar of Wakefield.”) 

George Eliot’s Life and Work. Among the best short biographies 
of George Eliot are Mathilde Blind’s and Cooke’s. (See p. ix.) 
These should be supplemented by Cross’s "Life and Letters”; 
but if left to himself, the pupil will find the last book hard reading, 
and should be guided carefully by assignments of certain pages 
by the teacher. The romantic and picturesque portrayal of her 
own life may of course be found in the first half of " The Mill 
on the Floss.” Use may be made of the topical method of study 
(see pp. x-xii), but to young readers the life is devoid of pictur¬ 
esque or emotional interest; it is a history of intellectual develop¬ 
ment ; and while a class cannot grasp all that it means, it must be 
made to feel this, the predominant quality in George Eliot and her 
work. Her relations with Mr. Lewes and Mr. Cross must be ex¬ 
plained upon the same basis. Reading with the class such poems 
as are suggested on page xiv will impress upon them still more 
the personality of the author. Much can be made of her asso¬ 
ciations with the authors listed on page xiii, if these articles are 
carefully read by the teacher or intrusted to some of the more 
mature members of the class. The following books have sec¬ 
tions on George Eliot which explain her work as an important 
link in the development of the English novel: W. L. Cross’s 
" Development of the English Novel ” and Leslie Stephen’s 
volume on George Eliot in the English Men of Letters Series. 

Possible topics for themes are these: 

1. The moral earnestness of George Eliot. 

2. George Eliot’s personality. 

3. George Eliot’s novels as a criticism of life. 

LORNA DOONE 

Introduction. Although " Loma Doone ” is a long story, it 
should not be read hurriedly. The reader will enjoy the roman¬ 
tic love story none the less because he takes time to appreciate 


82 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


the shrewd humor, the simple wisdom, the happy description of 
a pleasant country and quaint customs, and the attractive pic¬ 
ture of a very real and lifelike group of characters. (See p. xxxi.) 

In order that the brief note on the grammar and spelling 
(pp. 759-76*0) and the glossary (pp. 761-766) may not inter¬ 
fere with the pupil’s enjoyment of the book, he should be free 
to use them as little as he pleases. The Introduction (pp. ix- 
xxxi) should be left until he has read the novel at least once, 
or, still better, until he has reviewed those passages that seem 
to him particularly admirable, and has made notes of his own 
observations. 

Some students will wish to read other novels of Blackmore’s 
(see pp. x-xi), and to inquire why " The Maid of Sker ” and 
" Springhaven,” which their author considered superior to " Lorna 
Doone,” have a feebler hold on popular favor. Those who are 
looking for other novels that deal with the same epoch in the 
history of Great Britain may turn to Scott’s " Woodstock,” 
" Peveril of the Peak,” " A Legend of Montrose,” and " Old 
Mortality.” 

The Setting. Some of the differences between the ''Lorna 
Doone” country, as pictured by Blackmore, and the actual 
country are mentioned on pages xv-xvii. Point out some differ¬ 
ences in time, place, and scenery between " Lorna Doone ” 
and Scott’s " Ivanhoe ” ; between these novels and Kingsley’s 
" Westward Ho! ” with its setting in the counties immediately 
to the west of Devon. Show how the customs of the country 
as described by Blackmore add to the picture. (See p. xviii.) 

The following subjects are good for short themes or dis¬ 
cussions : 

1. A farmer’s life in Devon. 

2. Country sports in West England in the seventeenth century. 

3. The people of the Ridd household and on the Ridd farm. 

4. Some country superstitions. (See chaps, xvii, xviii, lxii, and 
others.) 

5. The government of the Doone Valley. (See chaps, iv, viii, xiii, 
xxxviii, li, and others.) 


LORNA DOONE 83 

6. An English country school. (See chaps, i, ii, and compare 
” Tom Brown’s School Days.”) 

7. A country merchant in the seventeenth century. (See chaps, 
xiii, lviii, lxi.) 

The Story and the Incidents. The love story is a main source 
of interest in this novel, and it is easy to point out in what way 
this love story is like that of most novels. (See p. xxiii.) Yet 
it is a great novel because it is much more than a mere love 
story. Witness such important incidents as occur in chapters 
xxxviii, liv, and Ixiv, and name others. 

Point out the stages by which the story progresses, as in 
chapters viii, xvi, etc. Does the novel assume the affection of 
the hero and heroine and content itself with overcoming ob¬ 
stacles to their union, or does it try to trace the growth of 
their mutual affection, or does it try to do both things ? Com¬ 
pare it in this respect with " David Copperfield,” " Ivanhoe,” 
and " Quentin Durward.” 

After reading Blackmore’s (Preface p. xxxv) and the Intro¬ 
duction (pp. xviii-xx), one understands why the novelist has 
introduced incidents that are not connected with the love story, 
as, for example, those in chapters xxxviii, liv, and lxiv. No one 
should think of " Lorna Doone ” as a historical novel in the 
sense in which many other novels (p. xix) are historical. We 
have the word of the hero himself on this point (p. 209). At 
the same time some students will notice scenes that have a his¬ 
torical background, as chapters xxiv-xxvi and chapters lxiv-lxvi, 
and may wish to compare the account given by Ridd with that 
of chapters ii-v of Macaulay’s " History of England.” 

The following subjects furnish material for short talks that 
should prove valuable to all pupils: 

1. Have you read incidents in other novels similar to those in 
" Lorna Doone ” ? Compare, for example, the schoolboy fight in 
chapter ii with the fight between Tom Brown and Slogger Williams 
in " Tom Brown’s School Days.” 

2. Describe incidents and scenes that are particularly interesting 
to you, and explain the reasons for your preference. 


8 4 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


These subjects are suitable for short themes: 

1. Tell in your own words how Lorna came to be in the Doone 
Valley. (See chaps, iii, xx, xxi, lv, lvi, and lvii.) 

2. Tom Faggus as highwayman. 

3. The first attack on the Doone Valley, from the point of view 
of the Doones. 

4. Ridd’s first visit to London. 

The Characters. What do you know about the character of 
Lorna from the description of her first meeting with John ? 
(See chap, viii.) What new traits appear in chapter xvi ? What 
characteristics of John Ridd and of Lorna are most set in con¬ 
trast to one another? (See p. xxiii.) Compare "Lorna Doone” 
in this respect with other novels, particularly " David Copper- 
field ” or " Henry Esmond.” 

How serious would the loss be if such minor characters as 
Reuben Huckaback, Squire Blewitt, Marwood de Whichehalse, 
Betty Muxworthy, and Jeffreys had been omitted ? What people 
belong to the groups of outlaws, country gentlemen, farmers, 
soldiers, politicians, traders, servants ? Is the assemblage a 
large one, — larger than in, say, "The Vicar of Wakefield” 
or " Silas Marner ” or " David Copperfield ” ? Which is more 
difficult to handle, a novel with ten or a dozen people or a novel 
with forty or fifty ? With which group or which individuals do 
you feel most in sympathy ? Which do you think Blackmore 
cared the most about ? In general, are his characters like those 
in " Ivanhoe ” or " Treasure Island,” or like those in Cran¬ 
ford ” and " David Copperfield ” ? Or do they possess traits 
in common with both groups of books? In what ways are 
any of these characters like people that you know ? Which 
chief characters do you call good and which bad? In what 
respects are they good or bad ? What things does Blackmore 
seem to you to consider excellent and worthy ? What bad and 
harmful ? Are the people that he wishes us to admire, as John 
Ridd, Annie, Jeremy Stickles, and others, to be praised for the 
same qualities that one finds in the worthy people of " Ivan¬ 
hoe ” ? Do you find any exceptionally good people here, as 


LORNA DOONE 


85 


in " The Vicar of Wakefield ” and " David Copperfield, ,, or are 
they only better by various degrees than the bad ones, as in 
" Treasure Island ” and books of adventure generally ? 

The following subjects are suitable for short themes or 
discussions: 

1. The character of John Ridd as shown in his sports and pas¬ 
times and in his encounters with Carver Doone. 

2. John Ridd as a moralist. (See p. 697, 1 . 12.) 

3. Annie Ridd’s management of her family. (See chaps, xxx, 
xxxi, etc.) 

4. The character of Ruth Huckaback. 

5. The Doones in fact and in fiction. (See p. xx.) 

Construction and Style. Unlike " Ivanhoe,” " Quentin Dur- 
ward,” and " Silas Marner,” the story is told in the first person. 
How does this autobiographical form of writing affect the 
selection of material in "Lorna Doone”? (See p. xxv.) Are 
any things told that the hero did not personally experience ? 
(See chaps, xx, xxi.) Does this method of story-telling tend 
to make the tale diffuse ? (See chap, x, and elsewhere.) Can 
you suggest any advantages in this method ? (See p. xxvi.) 
Do you note any digressions here, like the tales frequently 
interspersed in " David Copperfield ” ? Do you agree with the 
statement on page xxvii of the value of chapters that might be 
cut out without affecting the main story? 

The following subjects are suggested for discussion: 

1. The main point of chapters xxi and xxxii. 

2. How does Blackmore often bring in a character? (See chaps, 
x, xiii.) 

3. Blackmore’s rhythm. (See p. xxx, and note for yourself.) 

4. The language in " Lorna Doone.” (See p. xxviii.) 

Blackmore’s Life and Work. How did Blackmore’s " physical 
infirmity ” affect his choice of a profession ? (See p. x.) What 
two or three of his characteristics, named on page xi, do you 
most admire ? Many of the things of life that he held valuable 
are evident from " Lorna Doone.” (What are some of these 
things ?) What is the purpose of this novel ? (See p. xii.) 


86 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


TREASURE ISLAND 

Introduction. In what better way can a teacher begin work 
with boys who are in the " blood-and-thunder-novel ” stage than 
by showing them some of the best things in " Treasure Island ” ? 
It is just enough better than other novels with which they com¬ 
pare it to furnish an excellent entering wedge for authors whom 
many naturally find less absorbing, say Cooper or Scott. 

A judicious use of the great variety of introductory material 
should enable one to read even so entrancing a story as this 
with keener appreciation and zest. For instance, pupils who 
have no knowledge of seamanship may welcome the explana¬ 
tion of sailing a schooner and the chapter on a sailor’s work; 
and in the Glossary at the end are all the sea terms used in 
the story. 

Few books offer as many advantages for teaching composi¬ 
tion in an interesting way (see the numerous suggestions for 
themes and other exercises in the Notes), but it is far better 
to neglect this work than to allow it to detract from the pupil’s 
interest in the story. Without such study many pupils will be 
sure to read other romances by Stevenson, such as " Kidnapped,” 
" David Balfour,” " The Master of Ballantrae,” ” The Wrecker.” 

Those who observe how successfully the setting, the action, 
and the characters harmonize, should read in " A Gossip on 
Romance,” in the Introduction, the paragraph beginning " One 
thing in life calls for another; there is a fitness in events and 
places.” 

The Setting. The setting is. twofold : first, the Devon coast; 
later, Treasure Island itself. Contrast the scenery and weather 
of the two settings. To what extent does each background con¬ 
tribute to the effect and harmonize with the action ? For instance, 
study the beginning of chapter ii. In this description what 
details have been selected to produce the " dominant tone ” of 
gloom and imminent peril ? For other exercises on this pas¬ 
sage, see the Notes. Another passage which will repay careful 
study is the description of Treasure Island at the beginning of 


TREASURE ISLAND 


s; 


chapter xiii. Study the point of view, the unity of effect, the ar¬ 
rangement of details, the emphasis (see the Notes). What is the 
relation of the map of Treasure Island to the action of the story ? 
(See Stevenson’s statement in the Introduction of "The Writ¬ 
ing of 'Treasure Island.”’) Point out instances where the 
topography of the island caused certain events. By what means 
does Stevenson imbue this tale with the atmosphere of the sea ? 
What effect is produced by the constant booming of the surf ? 
As part of the setting we should consider the picture of pirate 
life and customs. What does Silver’s talk in chapters x and xi 
suggest to the reader ? What is the historical basis of the epi¬ 
sodes there mentioned ? (See Notes.) Look up on a map the 
haunts of the pirates in the Caribbean Sea, on the Guinea 
coast, and on the Malabar coast. 

Themes may be written on such subjects as the following: 

1. The Admiral Benbow Inn and the " Spy-glass.” 

2 . A description of Treasure Island. 

3. The career of Bones, Silver, Pew, Ben Gunn, and Flint before 
the opening of the story. 

4. The treatment of the sea in " Treasure Island.” 

5. Why is " Treasure Island ” a better title than the original one, 
" The Sea-Cook”? 

The Story and the Incidents. What was the origin of " Treas¬ 
ure Island ” ? (See Introduction, " The Writing of ' Treasure 
Island.’ ”) To what extent did Stevenson fulfill the promise of 
the following statement, written when he was just beginning the 
story: " Will you be surprised to learn that it is about Bucca¬ 
neers, that it begins in the Admiral Benbow public-house on 
Devon coast, that it’s all about a map, and a treasure, and a 
mutiny, and a derelict ship, and a current, and a fine old Squire 
Trelawney, and a doctor, and another doctor, and a sea-cook 
with one leg, and a sea-song with the chorus ' Yo-ho-ho and a 
Bottle of rum ’ (at the third Ho you heave at the capstan bars), 
which is a real buccaneer’s song, only known to the crew of the 
late Captain Flint (died of rum at Key West, much regretted, 
friends will please accept this intimation) ? ” What should you add 


88 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


to this to make a good summary ? Note the progress of the nar¬ 
rative. Are there any incidents which are disconnected with the 
main story ? Is this remark of Dr. Livesey’s to Jim true: 
" Every step, it’s you that saves our lives ” ? Give the steps in 
detail. Jim says in chapter xiii: " There came into my head the 
first of the mad notions that contributed so much to save our 
lives.” What were the other " mad notions ” ? Compare the 
chapters dealing with Billy Bones with Irving’s The Money 
Diggers in ” Tales of a Traveller.” Other subjects for com¬ 
parison are Flint’s pointer in " Treasure Island ” and the 
skeleton in Poe’s " The Gold Bug ” ; Silver’s parrot and Robin¬ 
son Crusoe’s parrot. What do you consider the most thrilling 
situation in " Treasure Island ” ? 

Besides the topics mentioned above, subjects like the follow¬ 
ing are suitable for themes : 

1. How I should have acted, had I been in Jim’s place in the 
apple barrel. 

2. The miraculous escapes of Jim Hawkins. 

3. Narrate in the first person, from the point of view of Captain 
Smollett or Long John Silver, the battle at the stockade. 

4. Jim Hawkins and Israel Hands. 

5. The mutiny of the pirates against Silver. 

6. The black spot in " Treasure Island.” 

The Characters. Read Stevenson’s fable in which Captain 
Smollett and John Silver discuss themselves as characters. (See 
Introduction.) What do you think of the points they make ? 
In a letter, Stevenson wrote of the characters in the book: 
" Are they fairly lively on the wires ? Then favour me with 
your tongues. Are they wooden, and dim, and no sport ? Then 
it is I that am silent, otherwise not.” What do you think ? Com¬ 
ment on this remark of Stevenson’s: " Character to the boy is 
a sealed book; for him a pirate is a beard, a pair of wide 
trousers, and a liberal complement of pistols.” Has Stevenson 
made his pirates more than this ? Are they differentiated ? 
How? What was the genesis of the character of John Silver? 
(See Introduction, " The Writing of ' Treasure Island.’ ”) Give 


TREASURE ISLAND 


89 


illustrations of " his strength, his courage, his quickness, and his 
magnificent geniality.” Stevenson wrote, " I was not a little 
proud of John Silver, and to this day rather admire that smooth 
and formidable adventurer.” What is your own attitude toward 
Long John ? Speaking of Silver, and Alan Breck (in " Kid¬ 
napped ”), and James Durie (in " The Master of Ballantrae ”), 
Barrie says: " Not to know these gentlemen, what is it like ? 
It is like never having been in love.” Compare Long John with 
these other "gentlemen.” Compare Jim Hawkins with other 
boy heroes. Consider the following statement: " Danger is the 
matter with which this class of novel [the novel of adventure] 
deals ; fear, the passion with which it trifles; and the characters 
are portrayed only so far as they realize the sense of danger 
and provoke the sympathy of fear ” (Stevenson, " A Humble 
Remonstrance ”). In what ways is the sympathy of fear pro¬ 
voked by the blind pirate Pew ? by other characters ? Do you 
agree with this statement: " Nobody minds Ben Gunn; dead 
or alive, nobody minds him ” ? 

Write themes on such subjects as; 

1. What I know of Flint. 

2. Captain Smollett and Captain Silver as leaders. 

3. How Ben Gunn must have lived and thought when alone on 
the island. 

4. Our first impressions of Silver and the real Silver. 

5. The buccaneers Hands, Pew, Black Dog, Morgan, Merry, etc. 

6. Why I like Long John Silver. 

Construction and Style. Unlike " Ivanhoe ” and " Silas 
Marner,” this story is told in the first person. Where does this 
autobiographical point of view shift from Jim Hawkins to Dr. 
Livesey? How many chapters are written by the Doctor? 
What are the reasons for this change of point of view ? Does 
it mar the progress and unity of the story ? Can you think of 
ways by which the material in the Doctor’s chapters could be 
written from Jim’s point of view ? What are the advantages of 
the autobiographical method ? the limitations ? How did Steven¬ 
son like a story to begin ? (See " A Gossip on Romance ” in 


90 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


the Introduction and Notes.) What details or incidents in the 
opening chapters of " Treasure Island ” ? Give hints of the story 
that is to follow. At just what point does the story begin to 
end ? Is the narrative well managed here ? (See Notes.) Notice 
how the old sea captain introduces the story. Discuss the con¬ 
clusion. Why is the last paragraph effective ? Pick out the most 
important chapters in the book and explain why they seem to 
you to be important. Examine the use of climax at the ends of 
chapters. Do you think the mystery concerning the crew of the 
Hispaniola is successfully handled ? Compare this with the 
treatment of the mystery in Stevenson’s later Stories, " The Ebb 
Tide ” and " The Wrecker.” What is the effect of the repetition 
of the song " Fifteen Men ” ? of the parrot’s cry, " Pieces of 
eight ” ? What scenes and characters " remain in the mind’s 
eye ” ? Can you tell why ? 

Study the author’s choice of words. Note that description is 
always used in the service of narration. What are the merits of 
the dialogue ? Compare the dialogue in this story with that in 
"Ivanhoe,” "The Vicar of Wakefield,” "Lorna Doone,” and 
"Henry Esmond.” While writing the book Stevenson said: 
" The trouble is to work it off without oaths. Buccaneers with¬ 
out oaths — bricks without straw.” By what means did he suc¬ 
ceed in giving the impression of violent and profane speech ? 

Stevenson’s Life and Work. A list of the best books and 
articles on Stevenson is given in the Introduction. Besides 
reading the brief sketch of his life, the student should dip into 
his letters, which reveal in a charming way his opinions and 
methods of writing. See A College Magazine in "Memories 
and Portraits ” for his account of how he learned to write. Tell 
about his family, his boyhood, his early occupations, his life at 
the university, his journeys in search of health, his experiences 
in the United States, his life in Samoa, his death. What various 
kinds of books did he write ? What are his characteristics as a 
writer ? as a man ? Why is his personality so attractive ? 


GROUP II 


POEMS CHIEFLY NARRATIVE 

SELECTIONS FROM THE " FAERIE QUEENE ” 

Introduction. Spenser’s " Faerie Queene ” is an allegorical 
poem, and, as an allegory, may be compared with Tennyson’s 
" Idylls of the King” and Bunyan’s " Pilgrim’s Progress.” 
Every work of this kind has a meaning apart from the recital 
of facts. The characters represent something over and above 
actual human beings; they are meant in addition to represent 
some quality or some state of soul.^King Arthur in the "Idylls” 
represents the soul of man in its smiggle with circumstances; 
Britomart in the " Faerie Queene ” represents the power of 
chastity in the fight against vice. Yet the poem is much more 
interesting as a story than as an allegory, and in the beauty of 
its descriptions and the harmony of its verse it ranks among the 
chief masterpieces of English poetry. 

The Setting. The Introduction tells the conditions under 
which the " Faerie Queene ” was written. The influence of 
Queen Elizabeth was of the utmost importance in stimulating 
the activity of the poets of her time, perhaps Spenser’s especially; 
and as in the more realistic of the Elizabethan dramatists we 
see pictured the actual life of the time, so in Spenser we find 
the beliefs, the dreams, the ideals of his contemporaries. The 
scenery of his poem, however, belongs to the land that never 
was, — the " land of Faerie.” 

These subjects may be found useful for oral or written 
compositions: 

1. The land where fair Britomart wandered. 

2. The scenery in the story of Marinell, Canto IV. 

3. The mask of Cupid. 

9 1 


92 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


The Story and the Incidents. What is the plot or argument 
of " Britomart ” ? Does the poem end as soon as the reader’s 
curiosity is satisfied ? Compare the story with that of Book I 
of the " Faerie Queene.” As a story, is "Britomart” as well 
arranged as the story of Guinevere would be if taken out of the 
" Idylls of the King ” ? Should you call Spenser an interesting 
story-teller ? If not, can you point to merits which compensate 
for his lack of the power to interest all classes of readers ? 

The Characters. What qualities in Britomart make her seem 
like a real person? Is Artegall equally real? Name certain 
characters in the poem that are evidently qualities dressed as 
persons. Should one expect carefully drawn characters in a 
poem of this kind ? 

These subjects may be discussed: 

1. Describe the appearance and state the chief characteristics of 
Artegall and Britomart. 

2. Artegall compared with Tennyson’s King Arthur. 

3. Is Britomart as real a person as Guinevere? 

Construction and Style. Since " Britomart ” is made up of 
selections from a longer poem, its construction cannot well be 
considered. The student who is interested in Spenser should 
consider the " Faerie Queene ” as a whole if he wishes to form 
an opinion of the poet’s ability as a constructive artist. (For 
editions, see p. xxv.) He will do well, however, to examine 
carefully the stanza, named Spenserian in honor of the poet, to 
note its characteristics, and to try to determine why it fulfills so 
perfectly the requirements of its creator. (See p. xxiv.) He 
should notice the ninth line with its added metrical foot. He 
should also name other poems in this meter, as Byron’s " Childe 
Harold,” Keats’s " Eve of St. Agnes,” and Shelley’s " Adonais,” 
and realize, without trying to explain why, that the same stanza 
produces different effects. Should you characterize Spenser’s 
handling of the stanza as " linked sweetness long drawn out ” ? 
What can you say of the liquid or flowing quality of his verse ? 
Compare it with the effect produced by the heroic couplet of 


PARADISE LOST 


93 


Pope or the blank verse of Tennyson. It might be well for 
the student to write a stanza in the Spenserian form, imitating 
Spenser as closely as possible. 

Is Spenser fond of musical effects in language ? Name some 
ways in which he makes his poem long, at the same time avoid¬ 
ing tediousness. Does he use much detail ? Does he use color 
freely ? Is he especially picturesque ? Certain poets suggest, 
where others describe fully. Which is Spenser’s way ? How 
does he compare with Milton in this respect ? Why is he called 
" the poet’s poet” ? Why is he fond of old words ? Point out lines 
that are especially characteristic of Spenser, — lines that could 
have been written by no one else. Pick out stanzas that present 
excellent pictures to the mind, others that illustrate the poet’s 
idealism. Is his reverence for womanhood conspicuous ? Spenser 
is said to have known well both the ancient classics and the 
writings of the Italian poets. Can you cite passages that sup¬ 
port this statement ? 

Spenser’s Life and Work. Like others of our greatest Eng¬ 
lish writers, Spenser, notwithstanding his poetic genius, was a 
practical, clear-headed man. Name these writers. (See p. xvi.) 
What were some of the finest traits of the man who " gave 
England its first great poem in its greatest age ” ? (See pp. 
xviii-xix.) What is the chief difference between his work and 
Shakespeare’s ? (See p. xx.) Were his surroundings favor¬ 
able to the production of his work ? (See p. xvii, noting the 
references to Bunyan and Milton.) 

PARADISE LOST, BOOKS I AND II 

Since "Paradise Lost” is by many, perhaps most, critics 
regarded as the supreme literary work in our language, pupils 
should be encouraged to read it and to treasure in the memory 
the most powerful and charming verses. Very young persons 
can appreciate the eloquent passages of the orations and hymns, 
the splendor or sublimity of some of the scenes, and the nobility 
of certain characters. When so much has been successfully 


94 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


attained, the pupil may be instructed according to the copious sug¬ 
gestions to teachers on the second page after the Introduction. 

The Setting. The field of action is infinite space, which, how¬ 
ever, contains the three finite regions, namely, the World, or Uni¬ 
verse, in which we live, and Heaven and Hell outside of it. The 
relation of these regions to one another is set forth in dia¬ 
grams which differ considerably in their details. No confusion, 
however, need result, if the opinion of James Russell Lowell 
(p. vii of the Preface) be borne in mind, that mathematical exact¬ 
ness may become unpoetical. Masson, who is freely quoted in 
the Introduction, assumes that Milton uses language with preci¬ 
sion, and this idea is rigidly applied and greatly extended by 
Himes, also quoted. The latter has evolved the diagram of Hell 
(p. xxiv) which seems to have been generally accepted. (See 
p. 85, and also Brooke’s " Milton,” pp. 85, 86.) 

The true chronological beginning of the action is at line 57 7 
of the fifth book, and the fiftieth line of the first book connects 
with and continues the closing part of the seventh book. The 
part of this World’s history covered by the nine days and nights 
of the " confusion ” is given in the note on line 50. 

The Argument and the Incidents. What is the main purpose 
of the poet ? (See p. 10, lines 24-26.) Does he make any prog¬ 
ress with it in the first two books ? Divide the first book into 
scenes, as if it were an act of a drama, and give a name, or 
title, to each scene. (For instance, the scene from line 670 to 
the end might be entitled "The Erection of Pandemonium.”) 
What may you call the first twenty-five lines? the first forty- 
nine, if taken together ? Excellent results are obtained from the 
interpretation of the scenes as wholes. How does the tone of 
Satan’s speeches compare with that of Beelzebub’s ? Does Satan 
express his real feelings, or talk for effect? (See line 126.) 

Divide the second book into scenes. With what is most of the 
first half taken up ? Who are admitted to the council ? (Con¬ 
sult Book I, lines 757-759, and the form of address in the 
speeches.) Give the points of Belial’s speech and show they are 
related to what was said before. Is Belial’s eloquence effective ? 


PARADISE LOST 


95 


Why not? (See Book II, lines 112-117.) How is Mammon’s 
speech received ? (See lines 284-298.) How Beelzebub’s ? (See 
lines 384-389.) Trace in the diagrams the course of Satan on 
his expedition to the World, using the various indications of 
direction found in the latter half of the second book. What is 
the general direction ? Where does the end of the second book 
leave Satan ? Has he seen the Earth ? Compare the relative 
size of Heaven and our World. (See lines 1051, 1052, and 
notes.) 

The Characters. All the characters introduced in the first two 
books are other than human. Though associated with various 
forms of volatile matter, such as flame, clouds, and winds (Book I, 
lines 117, 423, 534), they are essentially spirits. Once angelic, 
by their fall they became demons, and afterwards, from their 
acceptance by men, false gods on the earth. There is a two¬ 
fold division into seraphim and cherubim. (See Notes on Book I, 
lines 129, 157.) There are gradations in rank and dignity. (See 
Book I, lines 315, 316.) As spiritual beings they are not subject 
to the laws of matter, such as gravity and permanent shape or 
size; find the evidence of such exemption. (See especially 
Book I, lines 423-429, 776-792 ; Book II, lines 75-81.) Some 
of them are embodiments of vices or passions. (See Notes on 
Book II, lines 105, 120, 227.) Apply this test to others. Some 
represent material good elevated into objects of worship. (See 
Mammon, Book I, lines 679-691, and Mulciber, Book I, lines 
7 3 2 —7 5 1 •) Some, again, are more evidently allegorical concep¬ 
tions (Sin and Death, Book II, lines 760-795 ; Chaos and his 
court, Book II, lines 960-967). Is Satan in any sense the hero 
of the epic ? Does he give direction to the action ? Has he a 
reason for hostility toward the Almighty ? What is his attitude 
toward his fellow spirits ? What kind of government is that of 
the demons ? 

Construction and Style. What are the most notable qualities 
of Milton’s style ? (See Preface, p. viii.) What was Milton’s ideal 
of heroic verse ? (See p. 2.) Is any considerable proportion of the 
first two books given in the words of the characters ? Does this' 


96 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


indicate dramatic ability ? What two dramatic poems did Milton 
write ? What notable similes are to be found in these books 
of " Paradise Lost ” ? Account for the application to Satan of 
the simile beginning in Book I, line 594, and the one in Book II, 
line 492. (See the identification of Satan with Apollo, note on 
Book I, line 81, and Revelations ix, 11.) Why in the presence 
of Death is he compared to a comet ? Are the similes in gen¬ 
eral apt, or do they run too far away from the subject ? Cull out 
some passages of special harmony in language. Note passages in 
which there are many polysyllabic words and words of classical 
derivation. 

Milton’s Life and Work. The Chronology in the Introduction 
to " Lycidas ” (p. ix) may be used in fixing in mind a few of 
the important facts of Milton’s life. In some way the pupils 
should learn that " the great scope of his thought and the un¬ 
wavering nobility of his purpose set him apart from and above 
all the men about him except Cromwell”; they may compare 
him with Brutus as an idealist; and they should admire his 
faithfulness in doing what he believed to be his duty. See 
Wordsworth’s sonnet to Milton in the Introduction to the 
Standard English Classics edition of Milton’s " Lyrics”’ p. xi, 
and the study of that volume for further information about his 
life, as well as for questions on " Lycidas.” 

Some of the following subjects may be made the basis of 
discussions or reports: 

1. Milton’s tributes to music. 

2. Milton’s reproduction of sounds. 

3. Color in Milton’s poetry. 

4. The amusements of the fallen spirits. 

5. The erection of Pandemonium. 

6. Milton’s conception of devils. 

7. The Bible a treasure-house for Milton. 

8. The influence of Milton’s public service on his poetry. 

9. Milton’s geographical knowledge. 

10. Milton’s astronomical knowledge. 

11. Milton’s love for the music of proper names, with copious 
illustrations. 


THE RAPE OF THE LOCK 


9 7 


"THE RAPE OF THE LOCK,” AND OTHER POEMS 

Introduction. A student making his first acquaintance with 
Pope needs above all things the guidance of a teacher who is 
not only sympathetic with the difficulties to be encountered in 
coming into touch with a personality and a period so different 
from the average man and our own day, but sympathetic also 
with that age and with the often despised and misunderstood 
poet who is one of its abiding glories. The chief merits of 
" The Rape of. the Lock ” are pointed out in the special intro¬ 
duction to that poem (pp. 83-88). Pope’s own version of the 
poetic creed of the period is given in " An Essay on Criticism ” 
(printed on pp. 31-53 and summarized on pp. 103-104). Fur¬ 
ther light is thrown upon Pope’s literary creed by the " Epistle 
to Augustus,” which should be read in a complete edition of 
Pope by any student desirous of pursuing this topic. 

The Setting. For the setting of this great mock-heroic poem 
see pages 83 ff. 

The Story and the Incidents. Give an outline of the story, 
including the main incidents. What is the main incident of 
Canto I, and how far is the story advanced at its close ? What 
is the first important incident in Canto IV, and how does 
it affect the rest of that canto ? How is the story wound up in 
Canto V ? What became of the lock ? What mock moral does 
Pope draw at the close, and how is this connected with the 
occasion and purpose of the poem ? 

Construction and Style. After such a rapid survey of the 
poem as a piece of narrative, the student should study it as a 
masterpiece of ease, polish, and balance of matter and manner, 
in order to see how the bare narrative is lightened by the style. 
He should compare the original version with the revision as 
we now have it. He should note the organic unity of the poem, 
the power of lively characterization (pp. 86-88), and should 
know that it has value as a typical specimen of the poetry not 
merely of the reign of Queen Anne, but of the long period 
which stretches from Dryden to Wordsworth. 


9 8 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Where is the " inciting moment ” — the Baron’s desire to 
possess the lock — introduced ? Where does the climax of the 
poem occur? 

These subjects, treated in the Introduction, may be used for 
discussions or themes: 

1. " The Rape of the Lock ” as a mock epic. 

2. The source and purpose of the " machinery ” — the super¬ 
natural element — of the poem. Compare this " machinery ” with 
that of Homer, Vergil, and Milton. 

3. The picture of the society of Pope’s day. 

4. The " classical ” characteristics of " The Rape of the Lock ” as 
contrasted with such a " romantic ” poem, for example, as Coleridge’s 
"Ancient Mariner," with special reference to the use of the super¬ 
natural in both poems. 

By way of variety, the student may be asked to examine the 
poem with a view to gathering as many instances as possible of 
the imitation or parody of the epics of antiquity, many of which 
are pointed out in the Notes (see pp. 89, 92, 97, 98, etc). In 
this connection certain books of the Iliad, Odyssey, and 
yEneid in standard translations, as recommended by the 
National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements, may 
be read with a view to getting some idea at first hand of the 
epics which Pope parodied. The first and twenty-first books 
of the Iliad and the sixth book of the Hmeid are specially 
recommended for this purpose. Or the student may be asked 
to report orally upon the references in " The Rape of the 
Lock ” to the manners and customs of Pope’s day, to the dress 
of men and women, to the favorite pastimes, to the fashionable 
places of resort, etc. Here also such notes as those on pages 
90-93, etc., will prove useful. More advanced work may be 
secured by a careful comparison of the first form of the poem 
(printed in the Appendix) with its final form. Here the student 
should be asked not only to point out the main additions to the 
final form, — the " machinery,” the game of Ombre in Canto 
IV, and the speech of Clarissa in Canto V, — but also to give 
the reason for these additions, to show how they have been 


THE RAPE OF THE LOCK 


99 


worked into the body of the poem, and to point out the few in¬ 
consistencies that are due to these alterations; see, for example, 
the note on page 90. 

Finally, attention should be called to the characteristic merits 
of Pope’s style, to his mastery of the heroic couplet, to his 
trick of balanced epithets, to his brilliant descriptions, — as of 
Belinda in Canto II, — and to his epigrammatic force. The 
student might be asked, for example, to collect from the poem 
a certain number of epigrams, and to show how Pope has given 
them brilliancy and force by his choice of words, trick of antith¬ 
esis, and metrical form. Note particularly the effect of packing 
one idea into one line or one couplet as compared with the 
" run on ” method of Shakespeare’s or Tennyson’s blank verse. 

Pope’s Life and Work. The most important dates in Pope’s 
life, with those of the publication of his chief works, are given 
on page xxviii. The Introduction (pp. ix-xxvii) gives a more 
detailed though necessarily brief sketch of Pope’s life and char¬ 
acter. For fuller accounts the student may consult the " Dic¬ 
tionary of National Biography,” the life by Courthope, included 
in the great edition of Pope’s works by Elwin and Courthope, and 
the shorter biography by Leslie Stephen in the English Men of 
Letters Series. Pope’s own " apology ” for his life may be found 
in his " Epistle to Doctor Arbuthnot,” printed on pages 66-79, 
which should be carefully read by every one interested in the 
personality of the poet. The Introduction to this poem (pp. 126- 
127) tells something of the occasion of its composition, and gives 
a brief analysis (pp. 131-133) of its content. 

Pope’s work, more than that of most English poets, reflects 
the life of his time and embodies its essential spirit. No one 
can make a satisfactory study of it, therefore, without gaining 
an acquaintance with the age of Queen Anne either through 
such characteristic works of the period as the Tatler and the 
Spectator, Swift’s "Journal to Stella” and "Manual of Polite 
Conversation,” and Gay’s " Trivia,” or through such later ac¬ 
counts of it as are given in Thackeray’s " English Humor¬ 
ists ” (especially the lecture on Steele), his " Henry Esmond,” 


IOO 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Taine’s chapter on the period in his " History of English Liter¬ 
ature,” and, best of all for reference to particular facts, Ashton’s 
invaluable " Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne.” The 
lives of Addison, Defoe, Swift, and Steele, in the English Men 
of Letters Series, and Macaulay’s " Essay on Addison ” will 
also be found useful as collateral reading. 

Material for reports on such topics as the following will be 
easily found in the books just mentioned: 

1. A sketch of Pope’s life and work. 

2. The three periods of Pope’s work, with some account of "An 
Essay on Criticism” (pp. 31-54) as typical of the first, and "An 
Essay on Man ” (pp. 54-65 and 115-120) as typical of the last. 

3. Pope’s translation of Homer. (An advanced student who has 
read or is reading Homer in the original might be encouraged to 
compare Pope’s translation of certain passages in the first book with 
the more modern version of Lang, Leaf, and Myers, and might even 
make the acquaintance of Matthew Arnold’s famous essay " On 
Translating Homer.”) 

4. An account of Pope’s friends and enemies, — Swift, Boling- 
broke, Gay, Addison, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, and others. 

5. A day in the life of a lady or gentleman of London in Pope’s 
time. 

6. A few words about the influence of politics upon literature in 
Pope’s day. 


SELECTIONS FROM BYRON 

Introduction. The Introduction (pp. xiii ff.) should not be 
read until the poems have been studied. Portions of the section 
on Byron as a Poet can mean nothing to the student until he is 
familiar with the poems themselves, which should first be read 
without the aid of the notes. In the Preface (pp. vii ff.) will be 
found statements concerning the value of Byron in the school¬ 
room, and the end that should be kept in view by the teacher. 

Byron’s narrative poems are named and briefly criticized on 
page xl. There are few, if any, other descriptive poems like 
" Childe Harold.” Students who enjoy the fourth canto should 
also read the third, which is about the Rhine and Switzerland, 


SELECTIONS FROM BYRON 


IOI 


and which many people prefer to the fourth. The long passages 
of description in Scott’s " Lady of the Lake ” should be com¬ 
pared with Byron’s descriptions of river, lake, and mountain 
scenery in " Childe Harold.” Some of the descriptive passages 
in the " Faerie Queene,” written ‘in the same stanza, might also 
be compared with those of " Childe Harold.” 

"The Prisoner of Chillon” and "Mazeppa” 

The Setting, (a) " The Prisoner of Chillon.” The prisoner’s 
cell is, of course, the scene of the story, but the reader is always 
made to feel the beauty of the lake and mountain scenery about 
the castle. Byron loved this country, and described it at greater 
length in "Childe Harold,” Canto III. (See pp. 47 ff.) Contrast 
the confinement of the prisoner’s dungeon with the freedom 
and beauty just outside. Why did the Castle of Chillon appeal 
to Byron’s imagination ? (J?) " Mazeppa.” The setting is in 
interesting contrast to that of " The Prisoner of Chillon.” How 
do the two differ ? Notice how swiftly the scene changes, and 
how perfectly the story harmonizes with its background. The 
circumstances under which the old Mazeppa tells his story to 
the king — the quiet night, the unchanging scene, the sleeping 
soldiers — are in striking contrast to the wild action and shifting 
scenery of the tale itself. 

The following subjects may be used for short themes or 
discussions: 

1. A medieval castle. 

2. The history of the Castle of Chillon. 

3. The use made of natural scenery in (a) " The Prisoner of 
Chillon,” ( b ) " Mazeppa.” 

The Story and the Incidents, (a) " The Prisoner of Chillon.” 
The chief interest lies not in the story, which is very slight, but 
in the description of the prisoner’s sufferings. What is the pur¬ 
pose of the poem ? What do you think' of the ending ? What 
is the most tragic feature of the story ? Why does the poet dwell 
at such length upon the prisoner’s brothers and their death? 


102 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


( b ) " Mazeppa.” The story of Mazeppa’s ride is a simple nar¬ 
rative, in which events follow one another in the order of time, 
without complication. The first part of the tale (lines 125-358) 
exists only to explain Mazeppa’s punishment; the real interest 
of the story is centered in the " ride.” The reader wonders 
how Mazeppa will avenge himself on his enemies: where and 
how does the poet give this necessary information and so render 
his tale complete ? 

The following exercises may be used for short talks: 

1. Contrast the action of " The Prisoner of Chillon ” with that of 
" Mazeppa.” 

2. Show how the poet in ” The Prisoner of Chillon,” without 
making definite statements, gives the impression of a great lapse 
of time. 

3. Tell the story of Mazeppa’s life, and point out the use that has 
been made of it in fiction. (See pp. 131-132.) 

The Characters, (a) " The' Prisoner of Chillon.” The pris¬ 
oner himself (since the brothers are merely described and soon 
pass out of the action) is the only character of the poem. What 
is gained, what lost, by having only one character ? In this 
respect compare " The Lady of the Lake.” Is the prisoner a 
real and complete human being, or only a type ? What change 
comes over him in the course of his imprisonment ? How do 
we know that the hero of the poem is ?iot Bonnivard ? (See 
p. 18.) What did Byron admire in Bonnivard? The charac¬ 
ter of the prisoner differs altogether from the typical hero of 
Byron’s earlier narrative poems. (See p. 19.) Can you suggest 
a reason for this ? ( b ) " Mazeppa.” In this poem there are 
really two' characters, — the boy Mazeppa of twenty, the hero of 
the " ride,” and the Mazeppa of seventy, who tells this wild tale 
of his own boyhood. The boy — handsome, brave, careless, 
pleasure-loving — is rather a type than a real character, and the 
reader is interested not so much in him as in what happened to 
him; but the man Mazeppa, the warrior and chieftain, is inter¬ 
esting both in himself and as showing what kind of man the 
wild boy became after the experiences of fifty years. 


SELECTIONS FROM BYRON 


103 


The following subjects are suitable for discussions or short 
themes: 

1. The life and character of Bonnivard. (See p. 17.) 

2. What the prisoner learned in his dungeon. 

3. Mazeppa the boy and Mazeppa the man. 

Construction and Style. " The Prisoner of Chillon ” and 
" Mazeppa ” are narrative poems in which description plays an 
important part. What is the relation of the description to the 
narrative ? The story is told in the first person: is there any 
advantage in this method ? any disadvantage ? To whom, and 
under what circumstances, do you think the prisoner tells his 
story ? The poems are written in a verse form that Byron 
learned from Scott; compare it with that of " The Lady of the 
Lake.” Is it a good form for narrative poetry ? Why is it 
better for this purpose than the Spenserian stanza used in 
" Childe Harold ” ? What do you consider the most beautiful 
passage in each poem ? Which is the best example of Byron’s 
descriptive power? Notice the choice of words in these pas¬ 
sages. Do the poems contain any figures of speech ? If so, of 
what use are they ? 

Childe Harold, Canto IV 

The Setting. Though the hero is supposed to be narrating 
his own adventures, " Childe Harold ” is in truth not a narra¬ 
tive but a descriptive poem, and the scene of the canto, always 
in Italy, changes frequently, that the poet may have fresh subject 
matter for his descriptions. 

The Subject Matter. " Childe Harold ” holds a double inter¬ 
est^ — as an eloquent description and glorification of great scenes, 
men, and deeds, and as a revelation of the poet’s own character. 
(See p. 53.) What makes the poem more than a mere cata¬ 
logue of beautiful things ? Would it be so effective if written in 
prose? Read the selections from "Childe Harold,” Canto III 
(pp. 44 ff.), and then the entire canto, if possible, and compare 
the subject matter with that of Canto IV. 


104 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


The following subjects are suitable for discussion: 

1. Byron’s love of the mountains, and of the sea, as seen in 
"Childe Harold.” 

2. The kinds of subject matter treated in " Childe Harold.” 

3. Other subject matter that might well have been included in 
the poem. 

4. Famous passages in "Childe Harold,” as the apostrophe to the 
Ocean, Waterloo, etc. Why are they famous? 

The following subjects may be used for short themes: 

1. Byron’s opinion of Napoleon. 

2. Byron’s use of the history of Venice (or Florence, or Rome). 

The Characters. " Childe Harold ” is merely the revelation 
of one many-sided and highly interesting character, — that of 
the poet himself. Byron reveals himself in the poem in two 
ways: by direct statements about himself, and by the kind of 
material he selects for treatment and the way in which he treats 
it. What stanzas tell you about the poet ? Can you judge 
anything of Byron’s tastes and preferences ? How does the 
character revealed in " Childe Harold ” tally with that given 
on pages xiii ff. ? Do the merely personal stanzas improve the 
poem ? 

The following subjects may be used for discussions or 
short themes: 

1. Byron’s character as seen in " Childe Harold.” 

2. Byron’s knowledge of history (of art, of literature, etc.). 

3. Byron’s love of liberty. 

4. How Byron’s character affected his selection of subject matter 
for " Childe Harold.” 

Construction and Style. In form " Childe Harold ” is a descrip¬ 
tive poem, written in the Spenserian stanza. (See p. 41.) What 
gives the poem unity ? (See p. 52.) Who is supposed to give 
the descriptions, and what advantage has this autobiographical 
method ? Can you follow on the map the course of the poet’s 
wanderings? (See p. 52.) Are all parts of the poem of equal 
value ? Give your reason. Can you discover any method in the 
arrangement of the subject matter ? (See p. xl.) 


SELECTIONS FROM BYRON 


05 


The verse form of " Childe Harold ” deserves special atten¬ 
tion. Is it suited to the subject matter ? Would it serve in 
narrative ? Select some of the stanzas you like best; notice 
their rime scheme, meter, figures of speech, choice of words. 
Some of these stanzas should be memorized. 

Byron’s Life and Work. Byron’s life, perhaps the most varied 
and eventful ever lived by a great English poet, suggests many 
interesting questions. What do you admire in Byron’s char¬ 
acter ? What do you dislike ? How was his character affected 
by his lameness ? by his ancestry ? by his environment ? What 
traits appear in the poems included in the " Selections ” ? Do 
you think Byron might have excelled in other fields than that 
of poetry ? What kinds of poems did Byron write, and in which 
was he especially successful ? (See pp. xxxix ff.) Name some 
of his famous poems not included, even in part, in the '* Selec¬ 
tions.” What do you consider his merits as a poet ? Shelley is 
often mentioned with Byron. What did the two poets have in 
common ? How did they differ ? (Compare pp. xxxvii, xli.) It 
is interesting and worth while to know something of Byron’s 
period and of his contemporaries. (See pp. xxxvii-xxxviii.) 
Can you account for Byron’s great popularity during the early 
nineteenth century ? 

Many of the foregoing questions are answered in the " Selec¬ 
tions from Byron.” Others are fully discussed in the various 
books and articles named on page xliii, where also are given 
the complete editions of Byron’s works. A good school history 
of English literature will be found useful, and for questions of 
geography, history, biography, mythology, etc., the Century 
Cyclopedia of Names will prove helpful. 

The following subjects may be used for discussions or 
short themes: 

1. Byron’s relations with Shelley. 

2. Byron’s interest in Greece. 

3. Characteristics of Byron’s poetry. 

4. Byron’s school life. 

5. Byron’s life at the university. 



io6 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


THE RIME OF THE ANCIENT MARINER 

Introduction. After a very brief statement of the general 
character of " The Ancient Mariner,” the first hour devoted to 
the poem may profitably be spent in a sympathetic reading by 
the teacher to bring out the melody. The few archaic words may 
be explained during the reading or, like the notes, may be left 
for a more detailed study. The object of the first exercise is to 
help students to grasp the work as a unit, to arouse their imag¬ 
inations, and to stimulate them' to follow intelligently the devel¬ 
opment of the narrative. 

If the pupils are young or immature, the treatment should be 
very simple and informal. The prose outline in the margin will 
help them to understand the poem, and then they will enjoy read¬ 
ing it aloud. It may be divided for memorizing among the 
members of the class, and when they have all learned their 
parts and been trained to give them well, a continuous recitation 
of it from beginning to end will make an impressive class exer¬ 
cise. In training the pupils to recite their parts simply and 
appreciatively, it is but natural to call the attention of the class to 
the particularly beautiful lines, — with the view of bringing out 
the charm and power of the poem, not for the sake of explain¬ 
ing how certain results were secured by the poet. A reading 
of the poem, accompanied by lantern slides showing Dore’s illus¬ 
trations, will delight pupils who might otherwise be indifferent 
to its merits. 

Unless the teacher is reasonably confident that the pupils are 
ready to make a close examination of the poet’s work, most of 
the observations and questions that follow should be put aside 
for the time being. 

The notes are designed (i) to explain all difficulties of lan¬ 
guage, (2) to direct attention to distinctive traits of style, (3) to 
point out some of the sources of the author’s material, (4) to 
suggest a connection between the poem and the revival of 
interest in ballads that took place in the third quarter of the 
eighteenth century, and (5) to indicate parallels of thought and 


THE RIME OF THE ANCIENT MARINER 107 

language between this poem and others, chiefly by Coleridge. 
If the study of " The Ancient Mariner ” is not connected with 
that of the history of English literature, notes belonging in 
classes (4) and (5) should be disregarded. 

The critical comments (pp. xvii-xxvi) are to be read, not to 
secure a ready-made estimate, but to gain suggestions for the 
study of the poem itself. For example, William Watson’s analy¬ 
sis of the story (pp. xvii—xx) guides the student to an apprecia¬ 
tion of the plan and structure. The mature student may test 
its assertions by independent study, the results of which he may 
state in a written report. Lowell’s brief comments on the dic¬ 
tion and the descriptions (pp. xxi-xxii) are admirable guides. 
Some of the students may examine the poem for examples of 
the effects Lowell commends, and embody their findings in 
essays. Walter Pater’s comments (pp. xxiii-xxvi) are more 
subtle and psychological than those of the other critics quoted, 
but some teachers may desire to test his observations by com¬ 
parisons of their own. They may, for example, compare the 
supernatural personages, objects, and events with the witches 
and witch scenes of Shakespeare’s " Macbeth,” the ghost in 
" Hamlet,” and the fairies and spirits of "A Midsummer Night’s 
Dream ” and " The Tempest.” 

Other comparisons may be made with profit by the teacher. 
The moral effect resembles that of George Eliot’s " Silas Mar- 
ner.” The calamity in each case is isolation, — banishment from 
the world of loving persons and spirits. In the case of the 
Ancient Mariner this results from the crime of shooting the 
albatross; in that of Marner, from his unmerited conviction for 
theft. Comparisons of the loneliness of Silas and of Coleridge’s 
hero, and of the forces that in each case restored the sufferer 
to the society of his fellows and communion with God, are most 
suggestive. Tennyson’s " Palace of Art,” utterly different in 
style and method from both the poem and the novel, is a third 
treatment of the same general theme. 

No other poem of Coleridge’s is to be compared with " The 
Ancient Mariner ” for force, delicacy, and unity. " Christabel ” 


io8 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


approaches it most nearly, being a refinement of a medieval 
superstition. The fragment " Kubla Khan ” rivals these poems 
in melody, descriptive force, and romantic charm, but is inferior 
in narrative interest and quite lacking in moral significance. 
The " Hymn before Sunrise, in the Vale of Chamouni,” is a 
magnificent expression of Coleridge’s religious nature and per¬ 
haps reveals more plainly than any other poem the influence 
of his friend Wordsworth. " France: an Ode ” contains Cole¬ 
ridge’s most mature political sentiments concerning the French 
Revolution. " This Lime-Tree Bower my Prison,” " Frost at 
Midnight,” " Fears in Solitude,” ” Dejection: an Ode,” and 
" Youth and Age ” are of interest because of their relation to 
the life or character of the author, as well as because of 
their beauty. 

The Setting. Is the reader definitely informed concerning the 
time and place of the story ? In what ways are the descrip¬ 
tions unusual ? Find some that are used for the sake of con¬ 
trast or relief. To what extent does the setting harmonize with 
the mariner’s state of mind ? (Consider, for example, such 
descriptions as lines 231-247, find parallels, and report to the 
class.) Compare the descriptions with those of Scott’s " Lady 
of the Lake.” The teacher may compare the more important 
descriptive passages in the two versions (1798 and 1829) and 
seek the reason for every revision. 

The following topics are suggested for short themes: 

1. Glimpses of the sea in " The Ancient Mariner.” 

2. Coleridge’s sense of color and light. (Note passages in which 
color and light effects are described; consider the range, delicacy, 
vividness, and accuracy of the author’s perceptions, the variety of 
words at his command to express them, etc.) 

The Story and the Incidents. Why is the poem classed as 
extremely " romantic ” ? What is the subject of the poem ? 
the special subject of each part ? How does each lead up to the 
next ? What event sets the entire train of incidents in motion ? 
Is " The Ancient Mariner ” similar to most stories in being a 


THE RIME OF THE ANCIENT MARINER 109 

struggle ? From Coleridge’s words quoted on pages 53 and 54 
one may infer that the poem has a moral. Find the passage 
in which the moral is definitely expressed. Show whether the 
following incidents have any connection with the moral: the 
killing of the albatross, the casting of dice, the loneliness of 
the Mariner, his blessing the water snakes, the polar spirits’ 
part in the action, the Mariner’s return to his own country. 
How many of the parts end with a reference to the shooting of 
the albatross ? Explain the significance of your answer. Are 
there incidents that do not bear on the main theme? If so, what 
is the author’s purpose in them ? 

The following are suitable subjects for reports or discussions: 

1. Is the moral a natural development from the incidents? (See 
PP- 53 , 540 

2. Tell the story in your own words. (Aim to emphasize the im¬ 
portant situations by full and vivid treatment, and to subordinate the 
less important parts.) 

The Characters. How is interest in the principal characters 
aroused ? In what sense is the manner of introducing the 
Mariner dramatic ? Compare Coleridge’s method with that of 
Scott in " Ivanhoe ”; with Tennyson’s method of introducing 
Gareth in " Gareth and Lynette.” In the description of the 
Ancient Mariner are mental traits suggested by physical details? 
Has the Mariner a motive for shooting the albatross ? State care¬ 
fully the change brought about in his character as the result of 
his experience. Of what use are the minor figures, — the Mari¬ 
ner’s shipmates, the crew of the specter ship, the polar spirits, 
the hermit ? 

Construction and Style. What is gained by putting the story 
into the mouth of the Mariner himself? (Consider especially 
lines 1-20, 79-82, 139-142, 224-231, etc.) Is any loss of 
suspense caused by this method ?J Why is the Wedding-Guest 
chosen as an auditor? (Consider such passages as lines 1-20, 
31-40.) Is there any advantage in the occasion chosen, — the 
wedding feast? Lines 21-62 form an " induction.” What is its 


IIO 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


especial object ? (See p. xviii.) Select the most effective figures 
of speech. Have these any common character ? Make a list of 
archaic words. (This task should be distributed among five or 
six students.) Why are these words used ? Make a list of ten 
common words that are, in your opinion, used with especial 
force, beauty, or vividness. Find examples of alliteration other 
than those noted by the editor. What is the effect of alliteration 
on the style ? Find examples of the adaptation of the meter to 
the motions of objects described (e.g. in lines 383-388). Find 
other examples of harmony between sound and sense. What is 
the normal stanza form ? What is the effect of variations from 
this form (e.g. in lines 203-211) ? Find cases of interior 
rimes (as in line 354), and note the effect as you read them 
aloud. Select the most melodious passages. 

Reports may be written on these topics: 

1. Traces of the ballad style in " The Ancient Mariner.” (Compare 
the poem with a few of the ballads published in Gummere’s " Old 
English Ballads,” noting resemblances in diction, meter, figures of 
speech, phraseology, narrative method.) 

2. Coleridge’s improvements in the style. (Compare the two 
versions as regards choice of words, figures, meter, etc. ; note the 
important changes, and give reasons for them. The more archaic 
spelling of the 1798 version may be disregarded.) 

The Author’s Life and Work. Is there any connection be¬ 
tween the poem and the author’s character ? (See pp. vii-xiv.) 
Under what circumstances and influences was the poem written ? 
What was the nature of Wordsworth’s influence on Coleridge ? 
Name the main periods offColeridge’s life. What kinds of liter¬ 
ature other than poetry did he produce ? When and why did he 
practically abandon poetry ? What was the central weakness of 
his character ? 

The following topics may be used for short biographical 
themes: 

1. Coleridge at Christ’s Hospital. (See Lamb’s "Christ’s Hospi¬ 
tal Five and Thirty Years After,” in " Essays of Elia,” first series; 
Lives by Alois Brandi, H. D. Traill, Hall Caine and others; and 


THE LADY OF THE LAKE 


111 


the Introduction to Campbell’s edition of the " Poetical Works of 
Samuel Taylor Coleridge,” sect i.) 

2. Coleridge and Wordsworth. (See one of the lives mentioned 
above, and Campbell, sect, iv.) 

3. Coleridge’s conquest of the opium habit. (See especially Camp¬ 
bell, sect, xii.) 


THE LADY OF THE LAKE 

Introduction. In order to enjoy the story of " The Lady of 
the Lake ” it is best to read the poem rapidly and with as few 
interruptions as possible. The pupil, however, will appreciate 
the beauty and the rhythm of the verse only when he has read 
aloud — if he does not commit to memory — those passages 
that especially strike his fancy. 

The notes are placed at the bottom of the page in order that, 
if they are needed at all, they may be easily consulted during the 
reading. The setting of the poem can be better understood if 
one run? over pages xxxiv-xliv before beginning Canto I. The 
rest of the introductory matter should be left until the poem has 
been read through at least once. 

The Setting. Scott was a lover of outdoor life — of moun¬ 
tains, rivers, and lakes. He had " read a great deal, seen much, 
and heard more of that romantic country,” the Highlands of 
Scotland. (See pp. xlv, xlvi, xlviii.) Do you see the result in 
" The Lady of the Lake ” ? Are the descriptions natural and 
clear ? What do they add to your enjoyment of. the poem ? 
Point out some of the best, and compare them with descriptions 
in " Ivanhoe ” and " Lorna Doone.” Notice how the customs 
and lives of the people are formed and affected by the character 
of their mountain homes. 

Try to describe in your own words: 

1. The island in Loch Katrine. 

2. The Goblin Cave. 

3. The scene of the combat. 

4. The guard room at Stirling. 


112 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


These subjects are suitable for longer themes: 

1. Methods of fighting in the sixteenth century. (See Canto V, 
stanzas xii-xvi; Canto VI, stanzas xv-xxi.) 

2. Hospitality among the Highlanders. (See Canto II, and Canto 
IV, lines 731-798.) 

3. Scenery of the Scotch Highlands. (See Canto I, lines 168-317 ; 
Canto V, lines 10-60.) 

The Story and the Incidents. The plot of " The Lady of the 
Lake” is simple and direct, yet the chief interest lies in the 
mystery that surrounds James Fitz-James. How does Scott 
arouse your curiosity concerning the hunter? When do you 
first suspect who he is ? (See p. xlviii.) Notice what other de¬ 
vices Scott uses to lead the reader on from canto to canto. 

How many days does the poem occupy ? (See p. lv.) Make 
an outline, or map, of each day’s events, and see for yourself 
how skillfully the various stages of the story are woven together. 
For instance, Canto I is largely introductory, yet it is necessary 
to the understanding of many episodes later. (See Canto IV, 
lines 488-501 ; Canto II, stanzas vi, vii.) Notice the connection 
between various apparently unrelated incidents, such as the 
prophecy and the death of Murdoch, the scene at the Goblin 
Cave (p. 128), the final scene at Stirling, and others. 

Have you read incidents in other books similar to those in 
" The Lady of the Lake ” ? Compare the games in Canto V 
with the tournament in " Ivanhoe ”; the fight at the ford in 
Canto V with the combats in " The Idylls of the King,” espe¬ 
cially in " Gareth and Lynette.” 

The following subjects are suitable for short themes or 
discussions: 

1. The council on the island (Canto II). 

2. The story of Brian, the hermit. 

3. The journey of the fiery cross. (Consult the map, p. 2.) 

4. The invasion of the Highlands, from the point of view of 
Roderick Dhu. 

5. Events that lead to the duel at the ford. 

6. The battle on the shores of Loch Katrine (pp. 192-201). 


THE LADY OF THE LAKE 


1 13 

The Characters. Action, episode, and stirring life are more 
essential in a metrical romance than fine delineation of character. 
Is this true of " The Lady of the Lake ” ? Compare the poem, in 
this respect, with " Silas Marner ” and " A Tale of Two Cities,” 
or with a play like " The Merchant of Venice.” 

In " The Lady of the Lake ” are you interested in the char¬ 
acters as types of classes, or as individuals ? Are there more 
or fewer than in other books you have read ? (Read and dis¬ 
cuss the excellent criticism by Jeffrey, p. lii.) Are there any 
characters that you especially like ? What qualities in Ellen do 
you admire? in James Fitz-James, Douglas, Malcolm Graeme? 
Does Scott wish to make Roderick Dhu " the villain of the 
story ” ? Do you have any sympathy for him ? (See pp. 146- 
148, 200-202.) How serious would be the loss of such minor 
characters as Red Murdoch, Blanche of Devan, Malise, and 
Allan Bane ? Can you think of six or eight adjectives appro¬ 
priate to Roderick, Douglas, James Fitz-James, and Ellen ? (See 
p. xxiii.) Justify your choice of these. 

Good subjects for short themes or discussions are these: 

1. The character of Roderick Dhu. 

2. The spirit of Clan Alpine as shown by the journey of the fiery 
cross (Canto III). 

3. Douglas in time of adversity. 

4. King James in the poem and in history. (See pp. xxxix-xliv.) 

5. Ellen Douglas, and Rebecca the Jewess in " Ivanhoe.” (Com- 
pare-their characters, their experiences, and their behavior in time 
of great distress.) 

6 . Compare some of Scott’s chief characters with those of Byron’s 
narrative poems. 

Construction and Style. Do you think that the story of " The 
Lady of the Lake ” could have been told as well in prose ? Why, 
or why not ? Examine carefully the meter and the rime system, 
and notice variations of the regular construction, such as are 
found on page 55, stanza xix; pages 193-198 ; page 154, lines 
304-306. Do you think the poem would be more interesting if 
told in the first person, — by Fitz-James or: by Roderick ? 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


114 

What is the purpose and effect of the songs ? Which of 
them do you care for most ? Do they justify their place by their 
excellence as lyrics? (See pp. 36-37, 55-56, 91-92.) Could 
the ballad of Alice Brand be omitted without injury to the main 
story ? Do you think of other episodes that might possibly be 
omitted ? Do you agree with those who think that Scott should 
have made Malcolm Graeme, if he is to marry Ellen in the end, 
a more important character throughout the poem ? 

The following subjects may suggest profitable discussions: 

1. The main plot of " The Lady of the Lake.” 

2. Historical elements in the poem. 

3. The climax. (See pp. 205-206.) 

4. What I learn from reading " The Lady of the Lake.” 

5. The most interesting episode in the poem. 

6. Differences and similarities in the structure and style of Scott’s 
and Byron’s romantic narrative poems. 

Scott’s Life and Work. What elements in Scott’s boyhood 
and education fitted him to write romantic poems and novels ? 
(See pp. x-xiii.) 

Why did Scott give up writing poetry and turn to prose ? 
(See pp. 1 , li, and table on pp. liii-liv.) 

Which of his characteristics, mentioned in the Introduction, 
do you most admire ? 

Do you find anything in "The Lady of the Lake” that reveals 
the author’s tastes and reading ? (See pp. xix, xx, xlv, xlviii.) 

See the Studies of " Ivanhoe ” and " Quentin Durward.” 

THE VISION OF SIR LAUNFAL 

Introduction. In any edition of the " Vision ” the reader will 
find Lowell’s own note as to the tradition of the Holy Grail. 
Hardly any other tradition has been more variously and pictur¬ 
esquely developed. Particularly interesting is the way in which 
it became a part of the stories concerning King Arthur and his 
Round Table. Malory’s quaint tales of the knightly quests in 
search of the holy cup, and Tennyson’s beautiful Idyll, " The 


THE VISION OF SIR LAUNFAL 


115 

Holy Grail,” give with full and vivid detail such adventures as 
Sir Launcelot, Sir Percivale, and Sir Galahad had in the mystic 
search. Lowell’s aim is obviously more ethical than narrative, 
for his hero’s adventures occur only in a dream; and even the 
dream is mainly concerned with the two meetings with the leper, 
and only hints at the many adventures into which such an enter¬ 
prise as the search for the Grail must have led a knight. 

For information as to that creative year, 1848, during which 
Lowell produced works so widely different as the " Fable for 
Critics,” the first part of " The Biglow Papers,” and " The 
Vision of Sir Launfal,” see Horace E. Scudder’s " Life of James 
Russell Lowell,” Volume I, chapter v. The last-mentioned poem 
illustrates better than any other of the author’s what Scudder 
calls his " strong purpose to read the lesson of beauty and love 
to his fellows” (I, 121). 

The Setting. The setting of the poem shifts as does the 
scenery of a drama. First comes the vast background of all 
nature, — sky and sea, mountain, wood, and wind, — their 
grandeur contrasted with the pettiness of human nature in its 
foolish spending of itself for unworthy objects. But this vaster 
background suddenly resolves itself into the warm beauty and 
varied life of a typical New England June, such as Lowell de¬ 
lighted in. (Compare " Under the Willows,” " A 1 Fresco.”) In 
Part First, however, the gray castle of the " North Countree ” 
throws its chilling shadow over the landscape, and the reader 
is swept off in imagination to a land half poetic, half feudal and 
medieval. There is incidentally, also, a touch of the crusaders’ 
Orient in the presence of the leper and in Sir Launfal’s winter 
musing on the desert caravan (lines 261-272). 

The Prelude to Part Second and Part Second itself abruptly 
introduce the ice and snow of the Christmas season. Mountain 
and castle still suggest the " North Countree,” yet we have 
Lowell’s word for it that the scene grew out of his delight in 
a moonlit walk one winter evening from Cambridge to Water- 
town, and the " tinkle of a little brook which runs too swiftly 
for Frost to catch it.” 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


116 

These suggestions for written work may be helpful: 

1. Try to describe the impression made upon you at any special 
time by sky, mountain, wind, or sea. 

2. Give an account of Vanity Fair in " Pilgrim’s Progress.” 

3. Tell why you like some month or season better than others, 
and try to describe it as you see it. Then try to decide by what 
selection of details and by what choice of words and phrases Lowell 
surpasses you. 

The Story. The real story, contained in lines 94-108 and 
328-347, is brevity itself. Young Sir Launfal begins his search 
for the Holy Grail with a night’s unsheltered sleep on the rushes. 
A vision, not unhoped for, so sharpens the youth’s spiritual 
insight that, awaking in the morning, he gives up his quest, 
throws open the castle gates, and from then on shares with the 
" meanest serf ” every privilege of " hall and bower.” 

The story contained in the " vision” (lines 109-327) which 
so influences Sir Launfal needs no particular summary. The 
important point is to notice the appropriate contrast in season, 
age, mood, and gift that together express the moral growth of 
the knight in his supposed lifetime of fruitless searching. 

Here are a few suggestions for comparison: 

1. How similar is the effect produced on Sir Launfal by his vision 
to that produced on Scrooge by his in Dickens’s " Christmas Carol ” ? 

2. Compare the lesson of Coleridge’s " Ancient Mariner ” with 
that of Lowell’s poem. Which poem do you like better as a story ? 
Which do you like the better as you read it aloud ? 

3. Why was it better to satisfy the leper’s thirst by water from 
the rude wooden cup than to search for the Holy Grail ? 

The Characters. Each of these two important characters — 
Sir Launfal and the leper — changes remarkably during the 
course of the story. The young knight, eager for glory, despis¬ 
ing anything not wholly beautiful, develops, through a life of 
suffering, wandering, and loss, a spirit of rare humility, and 
grows to sec 

That thread of the all-sustaining Beauty 
Which runs through all and doth all unite. 


THE VISION OF SIR LAUNFAL 


II 7 

The leper, on his part, seems in the first place only that foul 
creature whom Sir Launfal beholds. But at the last he becomes 
mystically divine, typifying that which Sir Launfal has grown 
capable of seeing in all human nature, even the most wretched. 

These directions for further study may be helpful: 

1. Read in connection with lines 288 and following, Lowell’s sonnet 
beginning " For this true nobleness I seek in vain”; also " Yussouf.” 

2. In connection with Launfal’s abandonment of the quest (lines 
3 2 9 “ 333 )> discuss the reasons for King Arthur’s doubt concerning 
the value of the same quest, to which his knights in his absence had 
pledged themselves (compare Tennyson’s "The Holy Grail ”). 

Construction and Style. The first eight lines of the poem 
serve as a prelude to all the rest. In the figure of the impro¬ 
vising organist the poet presents his own nobler self reaching 
out for a lofty and worthy theme. His theme comes to him 
gradually, as comes the first "faint auroral” light of dawn; 
mysteriously in all nature he feels a heavenly presence inspiring 
mankind to finer effort. Then the theme narrows to summer 
with its irresistible call to joy and truth. Thence emerges a 
particular man, Sir Launfal, influenced by that season to keep 
a vow made long ago. And, through his experiences, that 
" faint auroral ” light of dawn becomes at last the glorifying 
light that shines from the recognized Christ (lines 302-309). 
Thus does the poet finally express precisely the theme he 
but dimly apprehended at first, — the universal brotherhood of 
man. 

Young pupils will need to be shown how one thought leads 
up to another in the first twenty lines of the Prelude to Part 
First; how the second stanza (lines 9-20) prepares the way 
for the third stanza, and the third for the fourth; and some of 
them will be at a loss to explain the value of the preludes as 
introductions. The teacher’s help is essential also to their un¬ 
derstanding of such lines as 90-93, 166-173, 255-257, and 
302-309, which include figures of speech, — metaphor, simile, 
and personification. A study of the meter should be supple¬ 
mented by an attempt to read the poem aloud with appreciation. 


8 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Lowell’s Life and Work. James Russell Lowell was bom in 
Cambridge, Massachusetts, February 22, 1819, where he died 
in 1891. The sympathetic Life by Horace E. Scudder, or the 
shorter one by Ferris Greenslet, and the two-volume edition of 
his letters by Professor Charles Eliot Norton, or Dr. Edward 
Everett Hale’s delightful " James Russell Lowell and his 
Friends,” are most convenient. 

Lowell is important in American literature as a critic, a poet, 
and a patriot. His essays on Dante, Shakespeare, Keats, and 
others, and his " Fable for Critics ” illustrate the first. " The First 
Snow-Fall,” " Auf Wiedersehen,” " After the Burial,” " Dora,” 
" Yussouf,” " The Singing Leaves,” " A Chippewa Legend,” 
" Beaver Brook,” " An Indian Summer Reverie,” and " To the 
Dandelion ” are good specimens of his verse. And the stately 
" Commemoration Ode,” the " Biglow Papers,” and the essay 
" On a Certain Condescension in Foreigners,” as well as his 
essay on " Democracy,” are examples of the various aspects 
of his patriotism. Lighter work is found in " My Garden Ac¬ 
quaintance ” and other short sketches. 


THE COURTSHIP OF MILES STANDISH 

Introduction. A descendant of John and Priscilla Alden, 
Longfellow evidently enjoyed writing " The Courtship of Miles 
Standish.” Priscilla’s reply to John Alden was a tradition, well 
known before the poet made use of it. The work which helped 
him most in his very detailed study of the life of the days 
referred to in the opening line of the poem was C. W. Elliott’s 
" History of New England.” 

Sufficient time should be given to oral reading to emphasize 
the fact that only thus can the verses be appreciated; and even 
if little attention be paid to the meter, a comparison with lines 
from " Evangeline ” will readily show that in one case the 
hexameter is more elastic and less stately than in the other. 

The Setting. Is the opening scene vivid ? Would the details 
be of much assistance to one who might undertake to dramatize 


THE COURTSHIP OF MILES STANDISH 119 

the poem ? How many times does the scene change in Parts I 
and II ? in III ? in IV ? in V ? in the rest of the poem ? Is 
your imagination aroused by the beauty and diversity of the 
scenes described, as it is in reading " Evangeline ” ? 

Point out passages that should make a strong appeal to an 
artist. See whether you can find some that are calm and peace¬ 
ful, some that are wild and terrible. Use one of these passages 
as the basis of a descriptive theme. 

The Story and the Incidents. What inferences may be drawn 
from Part I as to the nature of the poem ? Does that portion 
of the story contain hints of a tragedy ? of a comedy ? of fighting ? 
of a love affair ? At what point can you foresee the outcome ? 
How would you describe the movement of the poem ? Which 
of the nine parts are the most pleasing? On what does the 
story turn ? As you review the incidents, does the narrative seem 
probable ? Does the interest chiefly lie in the setting, in the in¬ 
cidents, or in the characters ? Is the ending more satisfactory 
than it is in some other poems by the same author ? 

The Characters. How many characters are there ? Are they 
described with sufficient detail to go far toward enabling one to 
paint their portraits ? Do you feel as if you really knew as much 
about them as you do about those in " Evangeline ” ? those in 
" Enoch Arden ” ? Do you find one trait more prominent than 
others in John Alden ? Write a theme on this trait, gathering 
together the incidents that bring it out. Arrange in a topical 
outline, and in an order that will emphasize their relative impor¬ 
tance, the characteristic traits of Miles Standish. Use this 
outline as the basis of a one-minute talk to the class. Use a 
similarly prepared outline in writing a character sketch of 
Priscilla. Which character makes the strongest appeal to you ? 
Do any of them remind you of other persons in fiction ? Is the 
conduct of all of them throughout the story such as might reason¬ 
ably be expected of men and women in their station in life ? Do 
they seem thoroughly human to you ? How do they compare in 
this respect with other characters in poems of Longfellow that 
you have read ? 


20 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Construction and Style. The poem belongs to what is known 
as narrative poetry, and is of medium length in comparison with 
other poems of its class. Are you familiar with any other poem 
of the same sort by Longfellow ? by another author ? The meter 
used is the dactylic hexameter, the English equivalent of the 
verse used by Homer. The long, melodious line, with the rise 
and fall in accent, suggests the ebbing and flowing of the ocean 
and forms an appropriate undertone for the story. Longfellow 
was criticized for using a meter that is not native to English poetry 
and some lines seem to give point to this criticism, but you can 
certainly find countless others which tend to disprove it, like 

Out of the sea rose the sun, and the billows rejoiced at his coming; 
Beautiful were his feet on the purple tops of the mountains. 

Be prepared to read aloud to the class the descriptions you 
like best. Do any of them suggest descriptions in other poems ? 

Longfellow’s Life and Work. Longfellow was a man of un¬ 
usual charm. His excellent ancestry, his youth in Portland, 
his literary interests at Bowdoin, the years spent in study 
abroad preparatory to his taking the professorship at Bowdoin, 
his transfer to Harvard, and the long quiet years at Craigie 
House, enriched by many friendships, — these are some of the 
attractive topics to be emphasized in the study of his life. 

Professor Charles Eliot Norton wrote a delightful little 
volume entitled " Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,” containing an 
interpretative essay and the chief autobiographical poems. It 
would make an agreeable exercise to study Longfellow’s life in 
connection with this book, having topics and poems given side 
by side. There is also an excellent life in the " Beacon Biog¬ 
raphies ” by George R. Carpenter. The authorized " Life and 
Letters,” in three volumes, was edited by his brother, the Rev¬ 
erend Samuel Longfellow. 

Is the old saying, that a poet is born and not made, true 
of Longfellow ? Show that the expression " a gentleman and a 
scholar ” applies with unusual exactness to him. Write a theme 
on " The White Mr. Longfellow,” if Mr. Henry James’s adjective 


LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME 


121 


seems suggestive to you. For a beautiful and just appreciation, 
see Thomas Bailey Aldrich’s last poem, " Longfellow.” 

These topics may be used for themes or talks: 

1. Craigie House. 

2. Longfellow’s patriotism. 

3. Longfellow’s home life. 


LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME 

Introduction. Macaulay’s " Lays of Ancient Rome .” are mod¬ 
ern ballads that the student should read straight through for 
the stories they tell. He will, however, find a great many proper 
names, and will need to refer frequently to the pronouncing 
vocabulary (pp. 143-148). Myers’s "Ancient History,” or any 
good high-school history of Rome, will furnish sufficient intro¬ 
duction to " Horatius.” If more preliminary work is needed, 
suggestions will be given by the opening stanza of the poem. 
Who was Lars Porsena? What was the House of Tarquin? 
Why should Lars Porsena be interested in the wrongs of the 
Tarquins ? Any classical dictionary will furnish the answers. 

English literature is, fortunately, full of splendid old ballads, 
which may be read at this time. " Chevy Chase ” and the 
" Battle of Otterburn ” are particularly referred to by Macaulay 
(pp. 27, 28). Read some of the following and compare them 
with the "Lays”: the stories about Samson in Judges; the 
combat between David and Goliath in I Samuel; Scott’s 
" Battle of Sempach ” and his account of the combat between 
Fitz-James and Roderick Dhu in " The Lady of the Lake ”; 
Tennyson’s " The Revenge, A Ballad of the Fleet ”; the bal¬ 
lad of Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne. Scott’s " The Border 
Minstrelsy,” Percy’s " Reliques,” and " Poetry of the People ” 
by Gayley and Flaherty (Ginn and Company, Publishers) are 
good books to refer to for similar poems. It should be remem¬ 
bered, however, that the " Lays ” are to be read for themselves, 
and not for the purpose of writing themes upon them or com¬ 
paring them with other pieces of literature. 


122 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


One may read the poems through with little attention to the 
notes and introductions, or he may read " Horatius ” and study 
it with care before passing to the next poem. The latter method 
has the advantage of making the reader, by a moderate use of 
the notes, acquainted with the important references and the 
general setting of the poems. After he has read " Horatius ” 
carefully, he should read Macaulay’s Preface, as it explains 
clearly just what the poet tried to do. (See pp. 23-25.) Has 
any poet done for English history what Macaulay did for 
Roman ? (See p. 2 4, paragraph 2.) 

The " Lays ” should be read aloud in class, and parts of the 
poems should be committed to memory. Good passages to 
learn are "Horatius,” stanzas i-xv; "Virginia,” lines 145-176; 
" The Battle of Lake Regillus,” stanza xxix. 

The following subjects are suitable for themes: 

1. Tell in your own words a story of heroism or adventure that is 
known to most of the class. 

2. Give an account of some event that you think contains ballad 
material. 

The Setting. The " Lays,” as the name makes clear, are 
about Ancient Rome. The poet imagines his story-teller speaking 
or singing to an audience as familiar with the exploits of Hora¬ 
tius and the battle of Lake Regillus as we are with the life of 
Lincoln and the battle of Gettysburg. This makes it necessary 
for the reader to put himself, as far as possible, in the place of 
a Roman listener. (See the map in the Introduction, p. 28.) 
One should read or recall the early history of Rome down to 
the " Expulsion of the Tarquins.” Plutarch’s lives of Romulus 
and Publicola will help the student. 

The introduction to each poem explains the exact circum¬ 
stances under which it is supposed to have been recited. Why 
is the introduction to " Virginia ” particularly important to the 
correct understanding of this poem ? Is there any difference 
between the moods of the audiences that are supposed to listen 
to " The Battle of Lake Regillus ” and " The Prophecy of 
Capys ” ? Which audience is the more patriotic ? 


LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME 


123 

The following will suggest subjects for themes or discussions : 

1. Write an introduction to " Horatius ” that will make the poem 
clear to a person who knows very little about Ancient Rome. 

2. Is the difference between Ancient Rome and a modern city so 
great that heroes of the type of Horatius are impossible to-day? 
Compare Horatius with the hero in Longfellow’s " Paul Revere’s 
Ride,” and the hero in Thomas Buchanan Read’s " Sheridan’s 
Ride.” 

3. Macaulay attempts to give an impression of whole armies (see 
" Horatius,” stanzas xi, xii, xxi-xxiv; " The Battle of Lake Regil- 
lus,” stanzas ix, x, xi-xix). Can you see the picture clearly? Notice 
such expressions as " in the centre,” " front to front,” " north looked 
the Dictator,” in " The Battle of Lake Regillus.” Do these expres¬ 
sions help you to get a clear picture of the battlefield? Look at 
some of the descriptions of battles in Creasy’s " Fifteen Decisive 
Battles of the World ” and see if the pictures that you find there 
are as vivid as those in Macaulay’s poems. Macaulay has written a 
splendid account of a celebrated siege. Read it in his " History of 
England,” chapter xix. 

4. " Virginia ” is supposed to be only the fragments of a poem. 
(See p. 94, line 24.) Piece these fragments together in your own 
words. 

The Stories and the Incidents. The " Lays ” are stories of 
fighting; of brave men and bloody deeds. The stories are 
chiefly patriotic. How is this patriotism brought out in the first 
two lays ? Is " Virginia ” a patriotic poem ? Does a comparison 
of "Horatius” and "Virginia” show that there are two kinds 
of patriotism, — a national and a local kind ? 

The story of " Horatius ” deals mainly with one character. 
How does stanza xxvi prepare the reader for the importance 
of Horatius’s brave deed ? Do Lartius and Herminius by their 
actions increase or diminish the importance of the part played 
by Horatius ? (See stanzas xxxviii and xl-xlvii.) 

Is there more than one important person in " The Battle of 
Lake Regillus”? In the story of "Virginia” which are the 
more important, the events or the persons ? Which of the lays 
has very little action ? Is " The Prophecy of Capys ” as inter¬ 
esting as the other poems ? Read Arnold’s poem, " Sohrab and 


124 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Rustum,” and see if you like better Macaulay’s way of having 
his characters act rather than talk. Has any great writer been 
able to have his characters talk much and keep them interesting ? 
Do Scott and Cooper use much conversation in their novels ? 

The Characters. Are Horatius and Lars Porsena more to 
you than mere names ? Write descriptions of Herminius and 
Lartius. Is Macaulay’s description of Horatius as clear as 
Scott’s picture of Fitz-James in " The Lady of the Lake,” Canto 
I, stanza xii ? 

" The Battle of Lake Regillus ” is full of the names of the 
combatants. (See p. 83, lines 673-681.) Are you sure that 
you know on which side fought Aulus ? Sextus ? Herminius ? 
Manlius ? Does it make the poem more realistic to have the 
actual names of the characters mentioned ? Does Homer use a 
similar method in the Iliad ? (See Homer’s Iliad, Books II, VI.) 
Did Macaulay try to imitate Homer? (See Introduction, p. 24.) 

Is Macaulay careful to make each important character dis¬ 
tinct ? Follow the name Marcus through the poem " Virginia ” 
and notice the adjective usually preceding it. 

Is there any great variety among the characters, or are most 
of them either wholly good or wholly bad ? If Horatius is a 
good character, is Lars Porsena a bad one ? (See " Horatius,” 
p. 47, lines 480-484; p. 49, lines 526-533.) You are pleased 
to see Titus and Appius Claudius both on the losing side. Is it 
for the same reason in each case ? Most of the stories that you 
have read have heroes and heroines. Are there any heroines in 
the " Lays.” Can you name an interesting story in which the 
chief characters are women ? It has been said that Shakespeare 
has no heroes. 

The following subjects are suitable for short themes, or will 
suggest subjects: 

1. Describe Horatius and compare him with some other character 
in the " Lays.” 

2. Write sentence character sketches of important characters. 

3. Write sentence descriptions of the personal appearance of 
important characters. 


LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME 


125 


4. Tell in your own words the story told by the dictator Aulus. 
(See "The Battle of Lake Regillus," p. 64, lines 101-112.) Does 
the fable make his meaning clearer than it would be without fig¬ 
ures of speech ? For a fable told under similar circumstances, see 
Judges ix. 

Construction and Style. Herder, a German writer, has said 
of the old ballads, " They are the flower of a nation’s char¬ 
acter, language, and country; of its occupations, its prejudices, 
its passions, its aspirations, and its soul.” The Century Dic¬ 
tionary says, " Ballads possess three main distinguishing char¬ 
acteristics : they are narrative in substance; they are lyrical 
in form; and they are traditional ih origin.” Has Macaulay 
been able to make his " Lays ” appear so real that these quota¬ 
tions may be applied to them ? On page 23 of the Introduction 
he tells exactly what he attempted to do. 

Macaulay’s own opinion of his poems should be interesting. 
(See p. xii.) What do eminent critics think of them? (See 
p. xii.) What is meant in the Introduction by the " swing and 
vigor ” of the lines ? Read aloud stanzas iii and xxi of " Hora- 
tius.” Has Macaulay written poems on other than Roman 
subjects ? Do they, on the whole, interest you as much as the 
"Lays” do? 

The following subjects are suggested for discussion and 
written work: 

1. Scan five lines of each poem. Turn to Pope’s translation of 
the Iliad, or to Scott’s description of the battle of Flodden Field 
in " Marmion,” and see whether there are other kinds of meter that 
can be used effectively in describing vigorous action. 

2. Point out the figures of speech in " Horatius,” stanza xix; in 
" The Battle of Lake Regillus," stanza xxxvi; in " Virginia," lines 
28-44. Why are " vulture eye " in " Virginia," and " starry gems ” 
in " The Prophecy of Capys," appropriate expressions? 

Macaulay’s Life and Work. See the Study of Macaulay’s 
" Life of Johnson.” 

Was Macaulay well acquainted with ancient Roman history ? 
(See p. x.) Are these poems his greatest work ? (See p. viii.) 


126 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Do the events in the " Lays ” belong to a period of Roman 
history about which we know a good deal, or are they in all 
probability mainly legendary ? 

The following will suggest subjects for themes: 

1. Macaulay’s love of accuracy. (See his " Life,” by Trevelyan, Vol. 
II, chap, xi; the Introduction, p. x; "Horatius,” p. 36, line 159; 
and the last stanza of " The Prophecy of Capys.”) Why is the 
description in " Horatius,” stanzas 68-70, peculiarly appropriate to 
the " brave days of old ” in Rome ? 

2. Judging by his heroes in these poems and by his own life, 
what are some of Macaulay’s ideas of "a great and good man”? 
(See the latter part of Macaulay’s " Life of Johnson.”).. 


SOHRAB AND RUSTUM 

Introduction. In retelling this old Persian story, Arnold aims 
to present in simple language and in a moving way the theme 
of filial and paternal affection, one of the most touching and 
human themes in literature. (For greater detail, see pp. xvi-xx.) 

After the first rapid reading, which gives one a good idea of 
the purpose and of the few simple incidents of the story, it is 
well to make some study of the style. A good method is to 
compare " Sohrab and Rustum ” with other narrative poems, 
such as " The Vision of Sir Launfal,” any of Tennyson’s 
" Idylls of the King,” Scott’s " Lady of the Lake,” or Byron’s 
" Mazeppa,” and to note not only the differences in purpose 
and theme but also characteristics of style. Arnold, for exam¬ 
ple, does not point a direct moral as does Lowell, but presents a 
picture of human desires and affections; he is less diffuse than 
Tennyson, but on the other hand he uses some elaborate similes ; 
he is less interested in the description of nature for its own sake 
than is Scott; he cares less for a stirring story than does Byron. 
Observations of this kind — on the description, the ornaments, 
the figures of speech, the morals of the various poems — tell 
much about the author, though, as is the case with Arnold, 
he may seldom directly moralize. 


SOHRAB AND RUSTUM 


127 


This study prepares for further acquaintance with Arnold. 
The main characteristics of his work are briefly indicated on 
pages vii-xvi, and a collection of his best known poems of 
various kinds follows on pages 31-107. The student of poetry 
should become familiar with these, since they are one of the 
fine poetical achievements of modem times. 

The Setting. Is Arnold definite in speaking of the place 
where the combat occurred ? What impression do you get of 
the scenery ? By reference to the map and to the geographical 
note (pp. xx-xxii), find the situation of such places and coun¬ 
tries mentioned in the poem as Seistan, Pamere, Cashmere, 
and Cabool. Are these exactly described, or are they introduced 
simply as names ? In either case what would their value be ? 
Are the rival camps described minutely ? Do you learn anything 
of the manners and customs of either the Persians or the Tar¬ 
tars ? In general, does Arnold attempt to supply exact informa¬ 
tion about places, peoples, and customs, or to give general 
suggestions to the imagination ? 

Short themes may be written on such subjects as the following: 

1. Arnold’s picture of the Oxus. (See lines 2, 13-15, 17-19, etc.) 

2. The Tartar camp. (See lines 1-30, etc.) 

3. The definiteness and color of the descriptions compared with 
those of " The Ancient Mariner ” or any other narrative poem. 

The Story and the Incidents. Tell briefly how the poem 
opens. When did the action take place ? Describe Sohrab’s 
visit to Peran-Wisa. Why was Sohrab in the Tartar army ? 
What plan had he for effecting his purpose ? How does the 
answer of Peran-Wisa to Sohrab determine the course of the 
story ? What is the result of Peran-Wisa’s challenge to the Per¬ 
sians ? How does Gudurz induce Rustum to take the field ? 
What are the ruling motives of Rustum’s character ? (See lines 
205-289, 322-378, and elsewhere.) Why is his fighting " un¬ 
known” (lines 257-259) necessary for the story? Why does 
he preserve that incognito ? Describe the combat and show 
how its fatal termination was rendered necessary and possible 


128 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


by reason of the motives and purpose of Sohrab. (See lines 
540-555.) What are the stages in the recognition of Sohrab 
and Rustum ? Why is the loss of his son particularly grievous 
to Rustum? Compare the closing scene (lines 857-892) with 
the opening scene. With what is the solitary anguish of Rustum 
contrasted ? 

Why is the scene of the recognition of Sohrab by Rustum an 
impressive one ? Point out other impressive situations. Does 
the final description seem to you to be powerful and appropri¬ 
ate ? If so, why ? What can you say of the pathos of the poem ? 
of the sublimity ? of the simplicity ? of the fundamental motive 
in the principal situation, in spite of the odd circumstances ? 

The following subjects are suitable for short themes or 
discussions: 

1. A brief summary of the poem that will bring out the central 
point of the tragedy. 

2. The motives and feelings on which Arnold lays emphasis, 
and a comparison of the poem in this respect with any other narra¬ 
tive poem. 

3. A comparison of "Sohrab and Rustum" with the " Shah- 
Nameh.” (See pp. xvi-xx.) 

4. The combat as seen by a Persian or a Tartar soldier. 

The Characters. Tell what you know, from the poem, of 
Sohrab, Rustum, Peran-Wisa, Gudurz, and others, — their 
appearance and character. Do you know each one for a par¬ 
ticular quality, motive, or act, or do you know many different 
things about each ? Compare the poem in this respect with any 
good novel, as u Henry Esmond ” or " David Copperfield.” Are 
the people in the poem such as you are familiar with, or are 
they of heroic size and simplicity, as in epic poetry generally ? 
Compare the poem in this respect with the Iliad, the Odyssey, 
the " Faerie Queene,” and " Paradise Lost.” Compare it also 
with the Persian original, to see what qualities Arnold brings 
out. (See pp. xvi-xx.) Is the poem, on the whole, modern 
in treatment ? (See pp. xxii-xxiv.) Compare it on this point 
with the " Idylls of the King.” 


SOHRAB AND RUSTUM 


29 


Such subjects as the following are suitable for short themes: 

1. Rustum. (See pp. xvi-xx, and throughout the poem, as lines 
347-3630 

2. The chieftains. 

3. The grief of Rustum. 

Construction and Style. Starting with your summary of the 
poem, or the following sentence, — "A son, seeking for a father 
whom he had never seen, was by the latter killed through an 
unfortunate misunderstanding,” — show how Arnold builds up 
his story. Divide the material that Arnold uses into an opening 
scene, a central action, and an effect. Point out the steps by 
which Arnold advances from the opening scene to the final 
scene. Does the beginning seem abrupt ? Do we know at 
the outset who Sohrab is ? Is more information necessary ? If 
so, point out the places where it is introduced. After finishing 
the poem are you aware of any lack of completeness ? Is any¬ 
thing in the poem not self-explanatory (excepting casual words 
with which a reader may not at first be acquainted)? Should 
you be glad to have further information about any person, as 
Peran-Wisa, Gudurz, or Sohrab’s mother, or is enough said of 
them for the purposes of this poem ? " All the essentials for an 
effective story are present.” (See p. xvi.) Name some of these 
essentials. Why should the poem be called " an episode ” ? (See 
pp. xvi—xx.) 

Point out typical similes in lines 110-116, 154-156, 160-168, 
and find others. Do you note similar figures in other poems of 
Arnold’s ? in Milton ? in Homer ? in Tennyson, or any other 
modern poet ? If so, in what does the similarity consist ? Com¬ 
pare these similes in purpose, length, frequency of occurrence, 
simplicity, and grammatical structure, with the figures of other 
poets. What is meant by the statement (p.xvi), "It seems to lie 
open in a slight degree to the charge of factitiousness, especially 
in its use or abuse of the Homeric simile ” ? Do you note many 
complicated sentences, as in lines 270-278 and 605-611? Is 
there any tendency to use a great many " ands” and other simple 
connectives ? What is the effect of these in contrast with the 


130 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


complicated similes ? Note " gray ” (line i) and " fog ” (line 2; 
see also line 867), and point out later occurrences of the same 
words. What changes and additions are made ? What is the sig¬ 
nificance of these changes? Note also " stream ” (line 2)," tent” 
(line 7), "strand” (line 13), "felts” (line 23), and the repeti¬ 
tion of these words. Point out other instances of repetition, as 
" stream’d ” (lines 110,116), and see pp.xxii-xxv. Note unusual 
words, as the verb " shore” (line 497), and any verses, as 33, 
that seem to be of irregular meter. Scan a typical verse, as 3. 

Arnold’s Life and Work. When and where was Arnold 
bom ? When did he die ? For what was his father known ? 
Describe Arnold’s education. What was his first attempt at 
poetry ? What was the date of " Sohrab and Rustum ” ? What 
was the reception of Arnold’s poetry, and to what honors did 
it lead ? 

When did his poetical career practically end ? For what did 
he exchange poetical composition ? What were the reasons for 
the change ? Name Arnold’s most important critical essays. 
What chiefly marks his work as a critic, in subject, attitude, and 
object of attack ? (See pp. viii-xiv.) What were his means of 
livelihood ? Describe the last decade of his life. 

SELECTIONS FROM THE IDYLLS OF THE KING 

Introduction. It is only a few steps from Hawthorne’s 
" Wonder-Book ” to Tennyson’s " Idylls of the King.” Often 
the reader takes these steps through such pleasant ways as 
Scott’s " Lady of the Lake,” Dryden’s " Palamon and Arcite,” 
Arnold’s " Sohrab and Rustum,” Pope’s Iliad, and Spenser’s 
" Britomart.” High-school pupils usually read Lowell’s "Vision 
of Sir Launfal ” and Coleridge’s " Ancient Mariner ” before 
reaching Tennyson. Thus the reader has been so happily 
introduced to ballad, narrative, and heroic poetry that he is 
likely to be ready for the " Idylls of the King.” 

Before trying to interest a class of pupils in the "Idylls,” 
the teacher will find it desirable to read pages xix-xxx of the 


THE IDYLLS OF THE KING 


31 


Introduction, as well as the other nine Idylls, to be found in any 
complete edition of Tennyson. The Notes on pages m-129 
are unusually full, giving sufficient quotations from the other 
Idylls to make all allusions plain. 

I The " Idylls of the King ” may have a story interest for the 
child, an adventure and romance interest for the high-school 
pupil, and an allegory and a poetry interest for the teacher. If 
the pupils are young or immature, the instructor may have the 
class read parts for the story interest, and rest content with that. 
If the pupils are sufficiently advanced, the " Idylls ” will bear 
reading for analysis and study. The twelve may be inspected 
as a whole; the epic may be discussed; the allegory may be 
interpreted; the’style of the poet may be studied. ' 

The Setting. Study of the "Idylls” should have as a historic 
background the wars of the fifth and sixth centuries between 
the Christian Britons and the invading Saxons and Angles. It 
should be remembered that the Christianity of Arthur antedates 
that of St. Augustine. (See pp. xxiii-xxiv.) There is, besides, a 
nature setting for every Idyll. Describe with some detail the 
nature setting of "Gareth and Lynette” (spe lines 1, 575, 642, 
655, 1255); of "Lancelot and Elaine” (see lines 161, 892, 
1014, 1033-1034, 1170, 1190, 1193, 1226); of "The Passing 
of Arthur” (see lines 91, 124-125, 171, 217, 232, 350-360, 
469). 

The Stories and the Incidents. What do we learn of Gareth’s 
home life from the first 175 lines? (See p. 4, line 115.) What 
do Lynette’s songs mean ? Tell the story of Castle Perilous. 
Tell the story of Lancelot as cpnnected with these&hree Idylls. 
When " Lancelot and Elaine ” opens, how notorimis have the 
actions of Lancelot and Guinevere become ? (See p. 83, line 
io 75 *) What claim had Modred to Arthur’s throne? Analyze 
the battle scene as a piece of description (pp. 97-98). Was 
Bedivere a true knight ? How many of the Round Table men 
and women became "holy”? Was Arthur’s life successful? 
Explain the point or points Of view that determine your answer 
to the last question. 


132 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Brief compositions may be written on such subjects as the 
following: 

1. The tournament: a contrast between the tournament of " Lance¬ 
lot and Elaine ” and that of " Ivanhoe.” 

2. The justice of King Arthur in the case of the widow and of 
Mark (pp. 12-14). 

3. King Arthur’s failure. 

The Characters. The characters of the " Idylls ” are strik¬ 
ingly individual. The poet often draws a distinct image in two 
or three telling stroke?. (See p. 20, lines 574-577.) Find other 
such pictures. Sometimes his single strokes are strong; as, for 
instance, Gawain " shook his hair,” Elaine’s nose was " tip- 
tilted.” Some characters are ethical units, standing for good or 
evil principles; as, for instance, " Modred biting his thin lips 
was mute ” (p. 2, line 31). The consistency of the poet in char¬ 
acter portrayal may be seen by following this character through 
to the climax, — Modred, the traitor (see p. 100, line 153). 

Had the Round Table any great, heroic characters ? Do 
wrong deeds affect the physical appearance of a character ? (See 
pp. 56-57, lines 244-255.) Compare with Milton’s "Comus” 
(lines 453-475). Compare also with the characters in Haw¬ 
thorne’s " Scarlet Letter.” 

These subjects may be used for compositions: 

1. Make a word picture of Lynette. Describe her growth. Is she 
a well-drawn character? Does she love Gareth? Remember the 
songs and the cave scene. 

2. The brothers: a study in character contrast. (Refer to spe¬ 
cific lines.) 

3. Compare Elaine with Shakespeare’s Ophelia. 

4. Compare King Arthur with Scott’s King Richard in " Ivanhoe.” 

Construction and Style. For the construction of the " Idylls,” 
read pages xxiii-xxix. For the poet’s use of " blank verse,” 
read pages xxx-xxxvii. What is the theme, moral, or purpose 
of the " Idylls ” ? Is it great enough for a " grand epic ” ? 
What is a grand epic ? (See the Studies of Homer and Vergil.) 
Does the allegory (p. 2, lines 41-58) strengthen Gareth’s plea? 


THE IDYLLS OF THE KING 


133 


What is allegory ? Find another instance of it in " Gareth and 
Lynette.” What use does the poet make of mystery ? Find 
two or three instances of its use. 

Nearly six hundred verses are used in bringing Gareth and 
Lynette together; does the story lack proportion ? Does the 
poet gain by beginning the story of " Lancelot and Elaine ” in 
the middle ? Compare it with " Silas Marner.” Note how 
Tennyson proceeds from one dramatic incident to another, — 
the " favor,” the wound, the recovery, the breaking of the news 
to the queen, Elaine’s death, the queen’s childish anger, the 
arrival of Elaine’s barge, the burial, the repentance. What is 
the most dramatic point in this Idyll ? Is it artistic to have the 
king warned of his approaching fall ? Show that the fall of the 
Round Table was due to the violations of the oath quoted on 
page 113. 

Tennyson’s Life and Work. How did the early training of 
Tennyson tend to make him a poet ? What was the effect of 
criticism on Tennyson’s early career? Did the poet have ob¬ 
stacles to overcome ? What three events of importance to Tenny¬ 
son happened in 1850 ? How long did it take him to write the 
"Idylls”? He chose to handle great themes; illustrate this 
statement by quoting the theme of " The Princess,” of " Maud,” 
of " In Memoriam,” of the " Idylls of the King.” He was a 
man of high ideals. Illustrate his ideals from the poems just 
named. What are a great poet’s rewards ? Illustrate from the 
life of Tennyson. 

The teacher will find it profitable to read the book entitled 
"Alfred Lord Tennyson: A Memoir by His Son,” as well as 
shorter biographies and studies by Andrew Lang, Sir Alfred 
Lyall, Arthur Waugh, Stopford Brooke, Henry Van Dyke, and 
others. 


SELECTIONS FROM BROWNING 

Introduction. A part of the Introduction (p. vii) is adapted 
only to older students, as are also a few notes and suggestions 
for study. Those parts may easily be omitted when the book 


134 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


is read early in the high-school course. Browning is in some re¬ 
spects difficult for the young reader or beginner, less by reason 
of the poet’s ideas than by peculiarities of style and expression 
to which the reader must become accustomed. Every poem, 
therefore,'should be studied as a matter of plain English, and 
should then be read aloud in class. Pupils should also be urged 
to prepare the lesson by reading aloud at home, to perceive how 
the words and meter reflect the thought and feeling of the poem. 
The student should memorize the poems that he likes. 

After some familiarity has been obtained with particular 
poems, it is wise to consider the Life, and, in general, the 
Introduction. 

Most of the selected poems are stories, but it is necessary 
to note that Browning called most of them " dramatic lyrics.” 
The teacher oi|the pupil should make a brief statement of the 
facts necessary* to bring out the dramatic contrasts and motives 
in each. (See Notes at the back of the book, as in " Cavalier 
Tunes,” p. 179; " Pheidippides, ” p. 18,^, etc.) 

Poems selected for Special Study! "Cavalier Tunes.” As 
you read the songs aloud, picture to yourself the scene, and note 
in each case how well the rhythm fits the attitude of the people 
supposed to be speaking. (See note on p. 179.) Write a 
description of the castle as besieged. Compare Sir Launfal’s 
castle as besieged by winter, to note characteristic differences 
in style and treatment. 

"'How they brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix.’” 
This is a lively, vigorous picture. Notice stanza ix especially. 
Give a word picture of each horse at what seems to you the 
most interesting moment. Summarize the story briefly and 
show how the effect of rapid, vigorous movement is conveyed. 
Write an imaginary story of a thrilling ride with a life message 
to be carried. 

The " Incident of the French Camp ” is, as the title states, 
an incident. Is the main purpose to picture the youth or Napo¬ 
leon ? Wherein lies the drama ? Who tells the story, and from 
what point of view ? 



SELECTIONS FROM BROWNING 


135 


" Herve Riel.” A study of patriotism, even in the seemingly 
least important citizen, is possible in connection with this poem, 
but the main purpose is tolpicture a simple, honest, good-natured 
Frenchman, quite as mucn as to present general ideas of duty, 
heroism, etc. Has Browning elsewhere treated subjects of this 
sort ? Who tells the story ? 

" Pheidippides.” What does Browning tell us of the old 
mythology of Pan (p. 184), of Athena, and of the theology of 
the Greeks ? How does the thought of Pan really enter into the 
battle ? What did Pheidippides mean by the sprig of fennel ? 
Had Pheidippides any right or reason to assume that Sparta was 
not sincere in the religious excuse given ? Discuss the reward 
given to the runner; why would it be considered a more fitting 
reward by the Greeks than by us ? Compare Herv£ Riel with 
Pheidippides. Discuss the line, "Athens the mother demands of 
her son.” How does the idea of blended filial devotion and patri¬ 
otism in " Pheidippides ” differ from our modern point of view ? 
Is the poem possibly merely a vehicle for Browning’s own ideas ? 

" The Bqy and the Angel.” What is the point of the poem ? 
The line " All service ranks the same with God,” in " Pippa 
Passes,” should be compared with this poem, and the pupil 
should note similar sentiments elsewhere in Browning. Is it an 
indication of Browning’s personal belief ? Does it present a 
social truth, a democratic ideal ? Expand the thought of the poem. 

" Home-Thoughts,from Abroad”and " Home-Thoughts,from 
the Sea ” should be compared with each other in point of senti¬ 
ment, and also with the idea in such a story as E. E. Hale’s "A 
Man without a Country.” Note the color effects and color words 
in these descriptions. What is the effect of the specific names of 
birds and flowers in " From Abroad,” and of the names of places 
in " From the Sea ” ? Compare the physical position of the poet 
in these two poems. 

"Up at a Villa — Down in the City.” Notice the point of 
view (p. 189, note). Comment on the use of irony and sarcasm, 
satire and humor, in this poem. What is a "whimsical distor¬ 
tion ” ? Indicate some passages of caricature in this poem. 


136 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Write of city or country life or of life in a lighthouse from the 
point of view of one who lives in it in all seasons, and give the 
ideal picture an outsider makes of it. 

"The Year’s at the Spring” (p. 66) should be memorized 
and, if possible, heard!as set to music. (See note, p. 190.) 
Show the place of the song in the poem. 

" Evelyn Hope ” should be read aloud and explained to 
younger pupils. For the theme, see page xxiii of the Introduc¬ 
tion and page 193. Who is speaking? State briefly certain of 
the general ideas suggested by the poem. 

"One Word More,” like " Evelyn Hope,” is possibly too 
advanced for any but the last year of the high school. It should 
be read aloud in order to secure appreciation of the meter. 
What is the thesis ? Point out some excellent lines. The intro¬ 
duction in the Notes (p. 194) should be read carefully. 

"The Lost Leader” (see note, p. 196) may be read aloud 
and commented on by the teacher, without previous study by 
the pupil. Who is referred to ? What is the idea, or ideas, con¬ 
veyed by the poem ? 

Construction and Style. Mature pupils should read that part 
of the Introduction which deals with these subjects. What is the 
use of monologue in poetry ? (See p. x and stanza xiv, p. 113.) 
How and why did Browning use it so much ? To what degree is 
it dramatic ? Note the peculiar result in point of view (p. xx). 
Choose an imaginary or real character and write a story, using 
monologue. Compare the monologue in Coleridge’s " Rime ” 
with the form as used by Browning. What is a lyric ? How 
could the " Dramatic Lyrics ” keep the spirit of a true lyric and 
still be dramatic ? (See p. x.) 

Stating the main idea of any of these poems, if possible in 
one sentence, show how Browning expands his idea. Point 
out any peculiar words. Indicate specific words and show-what 
value they give to the poem. 

Browning’s Life and Work. The Introduction gives sufficient 
material, but if more is wanted, it can be supplied from the 
Bibliography (pp. xxviii-xxix). 


THE ILIAD AND THE ODYSSEY 


37 


What was the parentage of the poet ? his training ? Where 
did he live ? How does the character of the poet show itself in 
his style of writing ? (See pp. ix-x.) Can you discover Brown¬ 
ing’s personal ideas from the poems you have read ? (See pp. 
xxi-xxii.) Consider the thought in " Pheidippides,” in " Herve 
Riel,” in the " Incident,” and the value of the " human note 
of fear ” in " The Boy and the Angel.” Can you point out 
other poems of Browning that seem opposed in thought and 
sentiment to these? 

THE ILIAD AND THE ODYSSEY 

The Poems as History. Pupils in secondary schools, after 
reading the story, should have their attention directed to the 
description of the life and customs of the early Greeks in each 
of these two great poems. They should be told also that the 
books are not the history of actual events, although there may 
be a historical basis, at least for the Iliad. The most that 
can be claimed for them is that they contain traditions which 
celebrate the great deeds of idealized national heroes, some of 
whom, perhaps, did really exist but of whom there is no authentic 
record. But the pictures of battles, of the households of the 
chieftains, of the swift ships, of the armor of the warriors, of 
dress; and the accounts of the religious rites, of the laws of 
hospitality and of guest friendship, of the domestic relations, — 
including not only those of husband, wife, and children but also 
those of servant and slave, — can be regarded as accurate por¬ 
trayals of the life of an ancient and yet advanced civilization and, 
to that extent, as history. 

Authorship and Date. Whether both books were written by 
the same author, whether there really was such a person as 
Homer, and whether the poems were composed in the first 
place as units in their present form, or were the result of addi¬ 
tions made from time to time, are questions that have long been 
debated. Professor Jebb thought it likely that the two poems 
were not composed by one man, but were enlarged by the 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


138 

same group of poets; and it is not improbable that they were 
expanded in the frequent recitals by their original authors, as 
well as added to by later bards. The date of the original, or 
" primary,” poems is placed before the eleventh century b.c. 
When all is said, they are certainly the earliest-known works in 
Greek literature, and for convenience’ sake, Homer is always 
called their author. 

Place in Literature. As far back as the fifth century b.c. 
the Iliad and the Odyssey were the basis of Greek educa¬ 
tion, and from that day to this they have remained the greatest 
examples of epic poetry of all literature, monuments to a genius 
that knew the springs of human conduct and that could paint 
men and women with such insight and accuracy that even to-day 
the reader finds in these wonderful stories, fiction though they 
be, life truths that belong to all ages. 

Style and Meter. Epic poetry treats, in the " grand style ” 
and at considerable length, of heroic deeds by noble persons. 
Matthew Arnold in his " Essay on Translating Homer ” defines 
the grand style and adds that " Paradise Lost ” and " The 
Inferno” are the other two best specimens of this kind of 
poetry. Vergil’s Hineid is also an epic poem. In Greek 
and Latin, hexameter verse is the meter for such poetry, but 
in English the meter is usually unrhymed iambic pentameter, 
although some authors and translators, Chapman for instance, 
have used hexameter verse. The later epic poems of Vergil, 
Dante, and Milton are distinguished from Homer’s as being 
literary epics, that is, as being based on a wide range of previous 
reading by their authors, and hence full of allusions and con¬ 
scious literary art. 

The mythology of Homer is worth careful attention, inasmuch 
as the best of English literature teems with allusions to it and is 
much more enjoyable if one has a knowledge of the myths and 
legends referred to. Indeed, much of the so-called classic Eng¬ 
lish literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is 
almost spoiled for any one who is unfamiliar with Greek and 
Roman mythology; and the best way to appreciate this is not 


THE ILIAD AND THE ODYSSEY 


139 


to cram one’s mind from a classical dictionary, or even from a 
" mythology,” but to seek the original authors, either in their 
own tongue or in good translations. If, therefore, there is time 
for a class to read these two poems entire, it would be most 
profitable to do so. Such reading would go far toward estab¬ 
lishing a taste for the best literature and making it more 
intelligible. 

The life and customs of the time can, in the same way, best 
be learned from the poems themselves rather than from treatises, 
and should suggest excellent subjects for discussion and written 
compositions. The pupils should remember that they are at the 
sources and must learn for themselves. In the Iliad, for example, 
the law of hereditary or " guest ” friendship as related in Book VI 
in the meeting between Glaucus and Diomede, the humble wor¬ 
ship of the gods as shown in the same book in the procession 
of matrons to the shrine of Minerva, and the funeral rites for 
Patroclus as described in Book XXIII are typical of the Greek 
civilization of that time. In the Odyssey the laws of hospi¬ 
tality are shown in Book I when Telemachus entertains Minerva 
as Mentor, and in Books III and IV when he is himself enter¬ 
tained by Nestor and Menelaus. The episode of Nausicaa and 
her maidens, the portrait of Alcinous’ wife, and the description of 
his gardens, in Book VI, are clear pictures of domestic life. 

Ethics of the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is worth pointing 
out that, in the Iliad, though the crime committed by Paris 
in stealing Helen from Menelaus is condemned by both Trojans 
and Greeks, yet Helen is treated with respect and consideration, 
the reason being that the gods and not Helen herself are held 
accountable for her acquiescence. Venus had promised Paris the 
most beautiful woman in the world, and therefore Helen had 
to yield to love for Paris just as much as Hector had to yield 
to fear when, " struck by some god, he fears, recedes, and flies,” 
before Achilles. Left to themselves, the heroes of the Iliad 
generally exhibit the virtues of justice, sincerity, courage, and 
reverence. The gods take part frequently in the fighting, and 
act individually according to their personal likes or dislikes 


140 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


and with all sorts of deceit toward each other and toward men; 
yet, as prophesied often through the book, Troy was to fall, and 
the crime committed by Paris and condoned by his countrymen 
was to be punished and justice was to be done. In other poems 
the fulfillment of the prophecy is related, and so we know that 
at last the gods let justice prevail. 

In the Odyssey the chief woman character, Penelope, is 
in strong contrast to Helen of the Iliad. Penelope’s love 
and fidelity never wane. For three thousand years this clear 
picture of loving, trusting wifehood has inspired mankind. 
Ulysses, through the perils of twenty years’ wanderings, always 
longs for the day of his safe return, and at last comes home 
with undiminished love for his faithful wife. The blandishments 
which on two occasions delay him are not of mortals, but are 
the wiles of the sorceress Circe and the nymph Calypso. As in 
the Iliad, violation of the law of the family is the basis of a 
tale of wrath and battle, so in the Odyssey love and rever¬ 
ence for the home preserve both husband and wife through pro¬ 
longed .separation and trial, and at last unite father, mother, and 
son in a reestablished household. 

In both the Iliad and the Odyssey the doctrine of requital 
for good and for evil constantly appears, and so there are 
many acts of vengeance. Such acts seem not to have been 
usually regarded as wrong but as just. It is noticeable that the 
real climax of each story is an act of requital, — in the one case 
when Achilles slays Hector and dishonors his corpse; in the 
other when Ulysses kills the suitors without mercy. Achilles’ 
vengeance appears to have been greater than even the gods 
could approve, but Ulysses’ deed is considered as only a just 
retribution for the wicked suitors. So, too, in the case of the 
final destruction of Troy, which Homer had in mind when 
the Iliad was written; it was an act of requital, an act of 
Homeric justice. 

These are but a few of the points of interest in these famous 
poems. 


THE ILIAD 


14I 


THE ILIAD 

The Setting. The time of the action is so remote that it is im¬ 
possible to tell within several centuries when it occurred. The 
scene is in and around the ancient city of Troy, on the coast of 
Asia Minor. The ruins of several cities have been found here 
successively superimposed one upon another, but practically all 
that we know about ancient Troy is what Homer tells us. The 
Greeks are encamped near the shore and are besieging the 
Trojans, who, however, often sally forth. Then great deeds are 
done; heroes fight and gods and goddesses lend aid. Occasion¬ 
ally the scene shifts to Mt. Olympus, and then the gods are 
the actors. 

The Story and the Incidents. At the beginning of the poem 
the siege has already gone on for nine years. Then is told the 
injustice done by Agamemnon to Achilles, the wrath and with¬ 
drawal of the latter, the death of his friend Patroclus, the return 
of Achilles to the fight, and his vindication as the bravest of the 
Greeks. The conclusion sees the redemption of Hector’s body 
by Priam after the triumph of Achilles. The story of the fall 
of Troy is not in the Iliad, but is contained in other works. 

Some of the most interesting incidents, all good subjects for 
compositions, are these: 

1. The quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles. 

2. The encounter between Glaucus and Diomede. 

3. Hector’s departure from Andromache for the battle. 

4. The duel between Hector and Ajax. 

5. The death of Patroclus. 

6. The death of Hector. 

7. The funeral games of Patroclus, and Priam’s visit to Achilles. 

Other subjects for composition or discussion are the following: 

To what extent are the warriors the puppets of the gods? Are 
the characters of the heroes less interesting on account of the inter¬ 
ference of the gods? What does this indicate with regard to the 
special character of the poem? Is the book merely an account of 
battles and encounters, or is it a general picture of civilization in 
which the main features of social life are involved ? Are the opposing 


142 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


chiefs necessarily personal enemies ? Is fair play a feature of the con¬ 
flict? What device does Homer use to describe Helen’s charms? 
Was Hector a coward in the fight with Achilles ? How much does 
Homer rely on similes for clearness ? What is meant by the " Homeric 
epithet ” ? What effect is produced by the frequent repetition of cer¬ 
tain phrases and passages ? Is the Iliad complete ? Has it a " plot ” ? 
Compare it as a story with the Odyssey. The character of Ulysses. 
Compare Tennyson’s poem on him. Compare Ajax the greater with 
Diomede. To what extent is mercy shown in the Iliad? What is a 
"guest” friend, or hereditary friend? Describe the usual armor of a 
warrior. How much power had Agamemnon? What part do the com¬ 
mon people play ? The character of Achilles. The brotherly regard 
that Agamemnon and Menelaus had for each other. The women 
of the Iliad. The meeting of Hector and Andromache. Achilles’ 
shield. The character of Paris. (Compare Tennyson’s "CEnone.”) 

THE ODYSSEY 

The Setting. The time of the action is just after the Trojan 
War and extends over ten years, during which the scene shifts 
from place to place over the eastern half of the Mediterranean 
Sea and to mythical places beyond. 

The Story and the Incidents. The Odyssey is a story of 
adventure, without a plot as the word " plot ” is now understood ; 
but the hoped-for safe return makes a climax, to which, for the 
sake of clearness, is added a sort of anticlimax to clear things 
up. Ulysses is the object of Neptune’s wrath, which according 
to prophecy cannot be entirely assuaged until Ulysses makes a 
further journey after his return; of this, however, we are not 
told, and the story ends with Ulysses’ vengeance on the suitors, 
his happy reunion with Penelope, his final reconciliation with 
the suitors’ families, and the reestablishment of his peaceful 
rule in Ithaca. 

Some of the most interesting incidents, all good subjects for 
compositions, are these: 

1. The description of the suitors and their behavior in Ulysses’ 
home (Book I). 

2. Ulysses’ adventure with Polyphemus. 

3. The visit to /Eolus. 


THE ODYSSEY 


143 


4. Circe’s enchantments. 

5. The passage of Scylla and Charybdis. 

6. Nausicaa’s excursion with her maidens. 

7. The visit to Alcinous’ garden. 

8. The slaughter of the suitors. 

9. Penelope’s recognition of Ulysses. 

Other subjects for composition or discussion are these: 

Telemachus’ visit to Nestor and Menelaus. Penelope’s device for 
putting off the suitors. A Greek household. The swineherd Eumaeus. 
How Ulysses was recognized on his return. The laws of hospitality 
as shown in the Odyssey. The part played by the gods. The women 
of the Odyssey. The Lotus-eaters. (Compare Tennyson’s poem on 
this subject.) The visit to the Shades. Humor in the Odyssey. The 
construction of the poem. The use of similes in the Odyssey com¬ 
pared with the use of them in the Iliad. The real climax. Homer’s 
sense of justice. Homer’s sense of reverence. Compare the move¬ 
ment of the Odyssey with that of the Iliad. 

Translations. Poetical translations of the Iliad and the 
Odyssey have been made by Chapman, Pope, Cowper, 
Bryant, and others. The best prose translation of the Iliad is 
that of Lang, Leaf, and Myers. Good prose translations of the 
Odyssey have also been made by Palmer and by Butcher and 
Lang. 

THE .ENEID 

The Author’s Life and Aim. The life of P. Vergilius Maro, 
the author of the ^Eneid, should be studied carefully, and 
his aim in composing this poem, which was written under quite 
different circumstances from its prototypes, the Iliad and 
the Odyssey, should be understood. Nothing is known of 
the life of Homer, the reputed author of the last-named books, 
but the life of Vergil is fairly well known, and his education 
and friendships, his time and environment, had everything to 
do with his purpose, which, in the opinion of many scholars, 
was the patriotic one of reconciling his countrymen to a stable 
though imperial form of government after years of civil strife 
in a so-called republic. In Andrises’ prophecy (Book VI) 


144 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Vergil gives strong support to Augustus’ rule. Here, too, he 
makes Anchises teach the doctrine of a future life, and of hor¬ 
rible punishment for the wicked as a warning for men to 
live righteously. And throughout the poem the reward of piety 
is shown to be the favor of the gods. JE neas himself is the plus; 
that is, the reverent or god-fearing. 

Style and Meter. Epic poetry, including not only the pure epics 
of Homer, which are absolutely unrivaled in their spontaneity, 
but also the literary epics of Vergil, Dante, and Milton, treats 
in ** the grand style,” and at considerable length, a lofty sub¬ 
ject. The manner must be dignified, the thought serious. In 
such a poem wonderful places, great deeds, and heroic persons 
are described, and a clear ethical doctrine pervades the whole. 
The meter must be stately, but its movement must, in the main, 
be rapid. 

The H£neid is a " literary ” epic as distinguished from the 
pure epics of Homer, the difference being mainly that Homer 
was simple and spontaneous, and had, so far as we know, 
no previous literature to rely upon for model or allusion; 
whereas Vergil, living in a much later age and more highly 
developed civilization, had all the finest literature and art of 
Greece, as well as much of that of Rome, within his grasp, 
besides the special advantage of being able to use the Iliad 
and the Odyssey as models for his own great epic. 

The meter of the Hmeid in Latin is the dactylic hexameter 
of the Iliad and the Odyssey and is eminently suitable to the 
dignity of the theme. Several translations have been made in 
iambic pentameters, either rimed or rimeless (blank verse). 

Place in Literature. The poem ends rather abruptly and poorly, 
and in some places is evidently incomplete; but this is because 
Vergil was not able to revise and finish it. Indeed, it was pub¬ 
lished against his expressed wish. Nevertheless, as a whole, it 
is one of the most polished and elegantly written poems of all 
ages, and easily holds its place as one of the few great epics. 
The only modern poems that can be classed with it as epics are 
Dante’s " Inferno ” and Milton’s " Paradise Lost.” 


THE ,ENEID 


145 


The Setting. In the Hmeid the events take place on the shores 
of the Mediterranean Sea from Asia Minor to Carthage, and in 
the central part of Italy at a time just after the fall of Troy and 
coincident with the wanderings of Ulysses. Vergil had the 
advantage over Homer of ten or twelve centuries of discovery 
and progress in civilization, so that he was able to describe 
places and the course of HSneas’ voyage far more accurately 
than Homer could describe the voyage of Ulysses. This adds 
much to the interest of the poem, and makes one feel as if he 
were reading a true account of persons as well as of places. 

In Book II the scene is in and about Troy on the night 
of its destruction. The story is told with a power and vividness 
that have never been surpassed, and that transport the reader 
back through centuries of time to wonder at the madness of 
the Trojans in trusting the deceitful and wretched Sinon and 
admitting the wooden horse within their walls; to see Trojans 
who have disguised themselves in Greek armor miserably cut 
down by their mistaken comrades; to see the burning and 
battering of the king’s palace; to be the horrified spectator of 
the murder of the venerable Priam by raging Pyrrhus even at 
the very altar; and finally to shut his eyes on destruction and 
slaughter too awful to look at. This second book is considered 
one of the finest of the whole poem. 

The scene of Book VI is mostly in the lower world, where 
the spirit of Anchises is made to prophesy to HCneas subsequent 
events of Roman history that had already happened when 
Vergil wrote the poem. In other places, too, Vergil introduces 
much that his contemporaries recognized as having actually 
taken place. 

The Story and the Construction. The /Eneid is composed 
of twelve books. The first six imitate the structure of the 
Odyssey and relate the travels of JEneas on land and sea 
while he is persecuted by Juno much as Ulysses was harassed 
by Neptune. Just as we learn of many of Ulysses’ adventures 
from the story which he himself tells to Alcinous, so we hear 
from ./Eneas’ own lips the story of the fall of Troy and of his 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


146 

wanderings, as he enthralls the fair Dido with the recital. There 
is, however, one marked difference between this part of the 
JE neid and the Odyssey; in the latter the voyage is very 
vaguely outlined and many of the places described cannot be 
identified at all; but the description of Eneas’ voyage and of 
the places which he stopped at or saw is in the main so 
accurate that his route can be identified to-day. 

The second six books imitate the structure of the Iliad. 
There is a catalogue of forces, there are the battles, charges, 
retreats, slaughters, and the interference of the gods; and at 
last Turnus, the Hector of the Rutuli, is slain by Eneas, a 
conquering, ruthless Achilles. 

The Incidents. Some of the main incidents, good subjects 
for composition, are these: 

1. The shipwreck on the coast of Africa. 

2. The story of the wooden horse. 

3. The death of Priam. 

4. The loss of Creusa. 

5. The meeting with Andromache. 

6. The escape from Scylla and Charybdis. 

7. The attack by the Harpies. 

8. The funeral games in honor of Anchises. 

9. The drowning of Palinurus. 

10. The visit to hell. 

11. The fate of Nisus and Euryalus. 

12. The death of Mezentius. 

13. The final triumph of .Eneas. 

Other good subjects for composition and discussion may be 
found among the following: 

Filial piety in the Eneid. What was Vergil’s idea of religion? 
of the gods? Is fair play shown in games and battles? What part 
do women play? What connection is there between the story of 
Dido and Roman history ? Compare Eneas with Ulysses and with 
Achilles. Who is the Hector of the Eneid? How Eneas saved 
Anchises at the fall of Troy. Was Eneas’ desertion of Dido justi¬ 
fiable ? The character of Eneas. The friendships of the Eneid. The 
description of Eneas’ shield. The description of Fame, or Rumor. 


THE M NEID 


47 


Hercules’ fight with Cacus. Whose descriptions of places are more 
interesting, Homer’s or Vergil’s, and why? Are " Marmion,” 
** The Lady of the Lake,” and the " Idylls of the King ” epic 
poems ? 

Translations. Poetical translations of the yEneid have been 
made by Dryden, Long, and Williams; prose translations by 
Morris and Conington. The student should read Tennyson’s 
fine tribute in verse to Vergil written at the request of the 
Mantuans for the nineteenth centenary of the epic poet’s death. 


/ 


GROUP III 

DRAMATIC POETRY 

A WORKING SHAKESPEARE BIBLIOGRAPHY 
FOR SCHOOLS 

1. The Drama, Its Law and Its Technique, by Elisabeth Wood- 
bridge. Allyn and Bacon. 

2. Shakespeare: His Life, Art, and Characters, by Reverend 
H. N. Hudson. Ginn and Company. 

3. Lectures and Notes on Shakspere, by Samuel Taylor Cole¬ 
ridge. George Bell and Sons. 

4. Shakspere, A Critical Study of His Mind and Art, by Edward 
Dowden. Harper and Brothers. 

5. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist, by Richard G. Moulton. 
Clarendon Press. 

6. Introduction to the Study of Shakespeare, by Hiram Corson. 
D. C. Heath & Co. 

7. Short Studies of Shakespeare’s Plots, by Cyril Ransome. The 
Macmillan Company. 

8. Characteristics of Women, by Mrs. Jameson. Houghton Mifflin 
Company. 

9. Shakespeare Commentaries, by G. G. Gervmus. Smith, Elder 
& Co. 

10. William Shakespeare, A Critical Study, by George Brandes. 
The Macmillan Company. 

11. Shakespeare’s Dramatic Art, by Hermann Ulrici. George Bell 
and Sons. 

12. A Life of William Shakespeare, by Sidney Lee. (New and 
revised edition.) The Macmillan Company. 

13. Folk-Lore of Shakespeare, by T. F. T. Dyer. Harper and 
Brothers. 

14. Shakespeare Studies : Macbeth, by Porter and Clarke. Amer¬ 
ican Book Company. 


148 




SHAKESPEARE 


149 

15. A Shakespearian Grammar, by E. A. Abbott. The Macmillan 
Company. 

16. Shakspere, by Edward Dowden. (Literature Primers edited 
by John R. Green.) American Book Company. 

17. A New and Complete Concordance of the Dramatic Works of 
Shakespeare, John Bartlett, compiler. The Macmillan Company. 

18. A Glossary to the Works of Shakespeare, by Reverend 
Alexander Dyce. Edited by Harold Littledale. E. P. Dutton 
Company. 

19. Shakespeare-Lexicon, by Alexander Schmidt. Third edition, 
revised and enlarged by G. Sarrazin. Reimer. 

20. New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare, by Horace Howard 
Furness. Macbeth; The Merchant of Venice; A Midsummer 
Night’s Dream; Twelfth Night; As You Like It. J. B. Lippin- 
cott Company. 

21. The Works of William Shakespeare, in reduced facsimile, 
from the famous First Folio Edition of 1623, by J. O. Halliwell- 
Phillipps. Funk & Wagnalls Publishing Company. 

22. School Shakespeare. Revised and enlarged editions of Twenty- 
three Plays, by Henry N. Hudson. Ginn and Company. 

23. Harvard Shakespeare (complete works), by Henry N. Hudson. 
Ginn and Company. 

24. The New Hudson Shakespeare, by Henry N. Hudson. 
Edited and revised by E. Charlton Black, with the cooperation of 
Andrew J. George and M. Grant Daniell. Ginn and Company. 

25. The Works of William Shakespeare, edited by William George 
Clark and William Aldis Wright. (The Globe Edition.) The Mac¬ 
millan Company. 

26. The Arden Shakespeare. Heath’s English Classics. D. C. 
Heath & Co. 

27. The Lake English Classics Edition, by William Allan Neilson. 
Scott, Foresman & Company. 

28. Shakespeare and his Predecessors, by F. S. Boas. Charles 
Scribner’s Sons. 

29. Shakespeare, by Walter Raleigh. (English Men of Letters 
Series.) The Macmillan Company. 

30. The Poems of William Shakespeare, edited with an introduc¬ 
tion and notes by George Wyndham. T. Y. Crowell & Company. 

31. Shakespeare’s Sonnets, edited by H. C. Beeching, Athenaeum 
Press Series. Ginn and Company. 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


150 


MACBETH 

Introduction. The pupil should begin by reading the play 
through for the outline of the story. Then, on taking up the 
play in detail, he will be ready to appreciate the dramatic value of 
every part in relation to the whole. Close study of Shakespeare’s 
text should precede any study of the Introduction (pp. 3-46). 
Pupils should memorize favorite passages for oral recitation. 
While guiding the choice of these selections, the teacher can 
draw from the pupils, before they have read any critics, original 
appreciations of Shakespeare’s genius. Simple scenes may be 
acted in class. If pupils show aptitude for acting, such attempts 
may be supplemented by more ambitious efforts before the 
whole school. It would be well if every class could present at 
least one Shakespearean play. 

In the case of " Macbeth,” if there is time to study the entire 
play aloud in class, the preliminary reading may be omitted, and 
the teacher may carefully direct an approach to the play which 
should make very much the same impression as 'Would the act¬ 
ing of the play by a competent company. This method is espe¬ 
cially desirable in " Macbeth ” because of the shortness of the 
play, and because of the fact that in no other play of Shake¬ 
speare’s is his suggestiveness more compelling in interest. (See 
p. 46.) In reading aloud the short opening scene the class 
must feel that some dread event is impending. Shakespeare 
strikes at once the notes of the weird, the horrible, the sinful. 
The second scene brings us down to the natural world, but here 
we find all Scotland in confusion. In the third scene it is sig¬ 
nificant that Macbeth’s first words echo the last words of the 
witches in scene i. (See p. 55, note.) Study of the characters 
of Macbeth and Banquo should begin with the moment of their 
meeting with the witches. Pupils should note in what different 
ways the two generals receive the supernatural greetings. By the 
time this point is reached, pupils ought to be aroused to an inter¬ 
est in the development of character and plot sufficiently eager to 
render further study a delight rather than a task. If close study 


MACBETH 


151 

of some scenes must be omitted on account of lack of time, sum¬ 
maries may be given of Act III, scenes v, vi; Act IV, scene ii; 
Act V, scenes ii, iv, vi. 

Compare with Macbeth the character of Hamlet; with Lady 
Macbeth, the characters of Regan and Goneril in " King Lear.” 
For other stories of early Scottish life pupils may read Scott’s 
"Fair Maid of Perth ” and some of the Scotch ballads in Percy’s 
" Reliques of Ancient English Poetry.” 

The Setting. Contrast the rugged northern background of 
" Macbeth ” with the softer setting of such plays as " The Mer¬ 
chant of Venice” and "As You Like It.” (See p. 45.) Point 
out the touches suggestive of Scotland ; for instance, the High¬ 
lander’s "second sight” in the dagger scene (p. 80), and hints 
of Scotch atmosphere and customs given on pages 70, 71, 142, 
143. Compare the supernatural atmosphere of " Macbeth ” with 
that of "A Midsummer Night’s Dream” and "The Tempest.” 

The following topics might be used for short talks or written 
themes: 

1. The costume of the Scotch Highlanders. (See Furness’s "New 
Variorum Edition,” pp. 406-407.) 

2. Life in an ancient Scotch castle. (See Scott’s "Castle Dan¬ 
gerous.”) 

3. The localities named in " Macbeth.” (See footnotes, Furness’s 
" New Variorum Edition.”) 

4. History of the stone of Scone. 

5. The witchcraft superstition. (It. is interesting to note that the 
Salem witchcraft incidents occurred in the same century as the pub¬ 
lication of Shakespeare’s "Macbeth.”) 

The Story and the Incidents. Shakespeare’s theme in " Mac¬ 
beth” is the ruin of a soul through unscrupulous ambition. The 
" exciting force ” is the prophecy of the weird sisters (Act I, scene 
iii). The "rising action,” marked by uniform success for Mac¬ 
beth, culminates in the murder of Banquo (Act III, scene iii); but 
the "falling action” begins simultaneously with the escape of 
Fleance. The " catastrophe ” of the play is, of course, Macbeth’s 
death. The teacher may help the pupils work out the analysis 


152 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


of the plot first in these larger structural movements, and then 
through the more mechanical divisions of acts and scenes. Act I 
gives us introductory exposition necessary for the understanding 
of the play; also the " exciting force ” and the beginning of the 
rising action.” It may be analyzed by scenes thus: Scene i 
furnishes the keynote. Scene ii acquaints us with the outward 
circumstances which form the background for the action of the 
play. Scene iii presents the " exciting force ” of the action in the 
interview with the witches. Scene iv: The apparent check to the 
movement of the play in Duncan’s naming Malcolm as Prince 
of Cumberland really strengthens the " exciting force.” Scene v: 
Lady Macbeth’s resolving upon Duncan’s murder initiates the 
" rising action.” Scene vi: Duncan’s visit to Macbeth’s castle 
furnishes the desired opportunity. Scene vii: Macbeth’s waver¬ 
ing resolution is strengthened by Lady Macbeth. His final 
determination to kill Duncan is the dramatic climax of the act. 
Act II continues the "rising action” through the execution of 
the plot. Scene i tells of the murder of Duncan and its attend¬ 
ant circumstances. The flight of Malcolm and Donalbain hints 
at a possible reaction, as does Macduff’s refusal to go to Scone 
in scene ii. The latter scene also shows, as in "Julius Caesar,” 
great disturbances of external nature accompanying violent and 
unnatural deeds. Act III continues through the first three 
scenes the "rising action.” Scene i prepares for Banquo’s 
murder. Note the intense dramatic irony of Macbeth’s injunc¬ 
tion to Banquo, "Fail not our feast,” and of his reply, "My 
Lord, I will not.” Scene ii: The revelation of character develop¬ 
ment here hints at the final catastrophe for both Macbeth and 
Lady Macbeth. Scene iii: Banquo’s murder marks the climax 
of the " rising action ”; Fleance’s escape, the beginning of the 
"falling action.” Scene iv: This superb scene is the turning 
point of the action. Note that, as in " The Merchant of Venice ” 
and "Julius Caesar,” the turning point is almost the exact me¬ 
chanical center of the play. Compare also, for the elaborate 
setting, the casket scene of "The Merchant of Venice ” and the 
Forum scene of "Julius Caesar.” Three agencies have been at 


MACBETH 


153 


work in producing the "rising action”; namely, Macbeth’s spirit, 
the supernatural influences, and political conditions. In the ban¬ 
quet scene (Act III, scene iv) Shakespeare shows us the reaction 
in Macbeth’s own soul; in scene v the reaction of the supernatural 
influences is foreshadowed ; and in scene vi, that of the political 
agencies. Acts IV and V, therefore, show the rapid working 
out of the "falling action” to the "catastrophe.” The charac¬ 
ters of the opposition become prominent now. We catch only 
fleeting glimpses of Macbeth’s moral degeneration and have one 
heartbreaking look at Lady Macbeth. Act IV, scene i, reveals 
the hidden hostility of the supernatural forces; also emphasizes 
Macbeth’s loss of self-control, — already begun in the banquet 
scene, — as does the ruthless murder of Lady Macduff and her 
children in scene ii. Scene iii presents the organization of the 
political opposition. Act V has for its climax the " catastrophe ” 
resulting from the " tragic forces ” of the " falling action.” Scenes 
i and v work out the catastrophe for Lady Macbeth, and the 
remaining scenes of the act hasten on Macbeth’s own inevitable 
end. Is any incident of the play "lugged in by the ears” for 
other than dramatic reasons? (See pp. 141, 142.) How can 
this violation of the unity of action be accounted for? (See 
Furness’s " New Variorum Edition,” pp. 242-243, note.) 

The following questions may stimulate interesting class dis¬ 
cussions or more formal debates: 

1. Was Lady Macbeth’s swoon (p. 92) only a pretense? (See 
pp. 38; 92-93, note; also Porter and Clarke’s " Macbeth,”pp. 60-62.) 

2. Was Macbeth the third murderer? (See pp. 108-109, note; 
also Porter and Clarke’s " Macbeth,” pp. 66-67 ; and note on p. 160 
of Furness’s " New Variorum Edition.”) 

3. Should the ghost of Banquo actually appear on the stage as 
in the Ben Greet representation of the play ? (See pp. 42-43; also 
notes on pp. 167-172 of Furness’s " New Variorum Edition.”) 

The Characters. Contrast the character of Macbeth with that 
of Hamlet. Note particularly their significant utterances con¬ 
cerning a future life, in Macbeth’s soliloquy beginning " If it 
were done when ’tis done,” and in Hamlet’s "To be, or not 


154 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


to be.” What does Hudson mean by attributing Macbeth’s 
falterings and misgivings to "the peculiar structure of his intel¬ 
lect” ? (See pp. 27-30.) Do you know of any real characters 
whose overreaching ambitioh has been their ruin? Can we 
make this charge, for instance, against Caesar or Napoleon? 
Was Lady Macbeth entirely without feeling? (See pp. 36-41.) 
Compare her in this respect with Regan and Goneril. Does 
Duncan seem possessed of the qualifications necessary for ruling 
a country in Scotland’s condition ? What would the play lose 
had Shakespeare not introduced the character of Macduff’s 
little son? (See pp. 134-135, note.) How do the weird sisters 
of the play differ from the common notion of witches ? (See 
pp. 169-170; Dowden’s "Shakspere,” pp. 218-222.) Are the 
witches in I, iii, and IV, i, the same characters ? (See pp. 17 7— 
178.) Is Hecate un-Shakespearean ? (See Porter and Clarke’s 
"Macbeth,” pp. 68-69.) 

The following topics are good for class discussion: 

1. Would Macbeth have murdered Duncan without the instigation 
of the witches? (See pp. 20-25 ; Dowden’s " Shakspere,” p. 223 ; 
Coleridge’s " Lectures and Notes,” pp. 371-373 ; Corson’s " Intro¬ 
duction to Shakespeare,” pp. 223-243.) 

2. Would Macbeth have murdered Duncan without pressure from 
Lady Macbeth? (See pp. 33-36; Corson’s " Introduction to Shake¬ 
speare,” pp. 244-251.) 

3. Did Lady Macbeth urge her husband to the crime solely from 
personal ambition to be queen ? (See p. 40; also Gervinus’ " Com¬ 
mentaries.”) 

4. Was Banquo in reality a silent accomplice of Macbeth, awaiting 
through Macbeth’s crime the fulfillment of the prophecy concerning 
his own honors ? (See pp. 25-27.) 

5. What was Lady Macbeth’s appearance? (Note Shakespeare’s 
hint, p. 149, line 14 ; see also Porter and Clarke’s " Macbeth,” pp. 62- 
64; Dowden’s " Shakspere,” pp. 223-224; Bucknill’s " The Mad 
Folk of Shakespeare ”; Mrs. Siddons’s " Remarks on the Character 
of Lady Macbeth.”) 

Construction and Style. " Macbeth ” is Shakespeare’s short¬ 
est tragedy and has been called his greatest work, though 


MACBETH 


155 


"Hamlet ” is more often thought to hold this place, and " Lear,” 
" Othello,” and, of late, " Antony and Cleopatra ” have had 
their champions. By what means has Shakespeare condensed 
so much meaning into so little space ? (See p. 46.) How does 
such compression influence the style throughout the play ? (See 
p. 42.) Does Shakespeare err in the heaped-up imagery of Mac¬ 
beth’s speech? (See pp. 30-31.) Shakespeare uses verse to 
express impassioned thought and to denote dignity and beauty of 
character and circumstance. When the subject matter is com¬ 
monplace, or the characters and circumstances low or mean, 
therefore, we find him using prose, as in most of the purely 
comic scenes in which his clowns figure; for example, the 
Launcelot Gobbo scenes in "The Merchant of Venice.” On 
the other hand, he uses prose also in speeches where pas¬ 
sion reaches such a height as to break through the limitations 
of verse; for instance, Shylock’s speech beginning "Hath 
not a Jew eyes ?” Or, again, prose may be used where release 
from the pomp and ceremony of a court is to be indicated, 
as in the forest scenes of "As You Like It.” Why, then, 
does Shakespeare use prose in " Macbeth ” for the porter scene ? 
for Lady Macduff’s conversation with her little son ? for the 
sleep-walking scene ? (For a full discussion of the use of verse 
and prose in Shakespeare’s plays, see Corson’s "Introduc¬ 
tion to Shakespeare,” pp. 83-98.) Compare also the difference 
between the verse, used by Shakespeare’s supernatural cre¬ 
ations and that spoken by the human characters. (See Porter 
and Clarke’s "Macbeth,” p. 43.) Compare in this respect the 
fairy speeches in "A Midsummer Night’s Dream” and "The 
Tempest” with the witches’ invocations in "Macbeth.” What 
parts of the play do some critics now believe not to be the work 
of Shakespeare ? (See pp. 169-171; Porter and Clarke’s " Mac¬ 
beth,” pp. 43-44, 70-73.) What internal evidence helps to fix 
the date when the play was written ? (See Act IV, scene i, lines 
16, 17, also p. 4.) What dramatic purpose is served by Act IV, 
scene ii ? (See p. 134, note.) What is the purpose of the many 
short scenes of Act V ? Compare in this respect "Julius Caesar,” 


156 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Act V. Enumerate the examples of dramatic irony. (See pp. 63, 
70-72, 85, 98, 112.) Note in connection with the style of " Mac¬ 
beth” Shakespeare’s frequent use of prolepsis, to which the 
footnotes usually call attention. What are some of the more 
important changes that have taken place in the English lan¬ 
guage since the age of Shakespeare; for instance, in the agree¬ 
ment of pronouns with antecedents, in case forms, in the use of 
prepositions, in the comparison of adjectives and adverbs, in 
the meanings of words ? (See footnotes in text; also Abbott’s 
" Shakespearian Grammar.”) For appreciation of Shakespeare’s 
compression of style, as well as for the delineation of character, 
it is a good exercise to have pupils paraphrase such speeches as 
occur on pages 66-67, 73, 80, 99, 104, 105, 107-108, 154, 

Explain "memorize another Golgotha” (p. 51, line 10); 
"fantastical” (p. 56, line 15, and p. 61, line 10); "faculties” 
(p. 74, line 8) ; " break this enterprise ” (p. 76, line 2) ; " incar¬ 
nadine ” (p. 85, line 11); " expedition ” (p. 91, line 19) ; " rest¬ 
less ecstasy” (p. 105, line 15); "effects” (p. 147, line 13); 
" There would have been a time ” (p. 158, line 7). Add to this 
list words and expressions which it is important to remember 
because Shakespeare used them frequently in a sense not mod¬ 
ern. Note particularly those which are misleading because their 
meaning seems to be clear. Point out the most poetic passages 
in each act; the most beautiful lines. 

The following topics may be used for class discussion or for 
more ambitious themes by specially qualified pupils: 

1. A comparison of Shakespeare’s " Macbeth ” and Middleton’s 
" The Witch.” (See Furness’s " New Variorum Edition,” pp. 388- 
405.) 

2. Shakespeare’s treatment of the historical sources of the plot of 
"Macbeth.” (See pp. 7-15; Furness’s "New Variorum Edition,” 
pp. 355-381 ; Porter and Clarke’s " Macbeth,” pp. 83-115.) 

3. Is the porter scene unworthy of Shakespeare? (See pp. 44, 86, 
note; Coleridge’s "Lectures and Notes”; Furness’s "New Vario¬ 
rum Edition,” p. 109; De Quincey, "On the Knocking at the Gate 
in Macbeth.” For an example of exquisitely subtle criticism the 




AS YOU LIKE IT 


157 


teacher may well read aloud this fragment from De Quincey. It is 
reproduced in Furness’s " New Variorum Edition ” (pp. 437-438); 
also in De Quincey’s "Miscellaneous Essays,” Boston, 1851, p. 9, 
and in the " Collected Writings,” ed. by Masson, Vol. X, p. 389.) 

Shakespeare’s Life and Work. How did the influences of the 
age of Elizabeth lead Shakespeare’s genius toward the drama 
rather than some other form of literary expression ? (See Long’s 
" English Literature,” p. 101 ; Dowden’s "Shakspere,” pp. 
7-27.) What influences of Shakespeare’s life fitted him to be 
the poet of nature and human nature alike ? (See Long’s " Eng¬ 
lish Literature,” pp. 137-143.) Into what periods are the plays 
of Shakespeare grouped ? (See Long’s " English Literature,” 
pp. 149-150.) For detailed explanation of the mood that dom¬ 
inated each of these periods, see Brandes’ "William Shake¬ 
speare.” Into what classes are Shakespeare’s plays divided 
according to their dramatic type ? (See Long’s " English Liter¬ 
ature,” pp. 151-152.) To what period does " Macbeth” belong ? 
In what class does its dramatic type place it ? Were there any 
circumstances of the period that may have influenced Shake¬ 
speare’s choice of a Scotch theme ? (See Brandes’ " William 
Shakespeare,” p. 421.) What reasons have we for thinking that 
Shakespeare may have visited Scotland ? (See pp. 5-6, 70-71, 
142-143; Furness’s "New Variorum Edition,” pp. 407-410.) 
Judging from this play, and others of the same period, what 
was, to Shakespeare, the supreme tragedy in life? 


AS YOU LIKE IT 

Introduction. For general suggestions as to methods of study¬ 
ing Shakespeare, see Introduction to the Study of " Macbeth.” 
The peculiarly sweet and idyllic quality of this play can be 
brought out partly by contrasting the freedom of the woodland 
life with the ordered stateliness of scenes in " Twelfth Night ” 
and " The Merchant of Venice.” In reading the opening scenes, 
note the similarity in the fortunes of Orlando and Rosalind and 
the influence it has in attracting them to each other. Try to 


158 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


follow Celia and Rosalind and Touchstone into the forest with 
the spirit of holiday anticipation suggested by Celia’s words: 

Now go we in content, 

To liberty and not to banishment. 

It should seem to the class in keeping with the spirit of the 
play to memorize the finest passages for oral recitation, to act 
most of the forest scenes, and to sing the songs. 

For comparison with the plot of "As You Like It," read the 
"Tale of Gamelyn" (reproduced in Furness’s "NewVariorum 
Edition ’’ ) and Lodge’s "Rosalynde ’’ (reproduced in Furness’s 
" New Variorum Edition," pp. 316-387; also in Cassell’s National 
Library, No. 62, and in the Standard English Classics, edited by 
Baldwin). Read for similar setting the Robin Hood ballads. 

The Setting. What other plays of Shakespeare’s have a some¬ 
what similar background ? What important difference is there, 
however, between the setting of "As You Like It ’’ and that of 
"The Tempest" and "A Midsummer Night’s Dream" ? Note 
the influence of the woodland life upon the action, the char¬ 
acters, and the style of the play. (See pp. n-12, 24-28.) 
Does the freedom of the forest life lessen the improbabilities 
and inconsistencies of the play ? (See p. 23.) Is the introduction 
of palm trees and a lioness into the Forest of Arden a serious 
defect? (See pp. 23-24; also Furness’s "New Variorum Edi¬ 
tion," p. 155, note, and pp. 16-18.) 

The following subjects are good for short themes or talks: 

1. The Forest of Arden. (See Furness’s " New Variorum Edition,” 
pp. 16-18, note.) 

2. Woodland life in the old ballads. (See Percy’s " Reliques.”) 

The Story and the Incidents. " As You Like It" is possibly 
more than anything else a romantic drama of love at first sight. 
It will interest pupils to know that the story of Orlando is a ver¬ 
sion of the familiar " younger child ’’ plot which appears in such 
world-wide classics as " Puss in Boots," " Cinderella," the Old 
Testament story of Joseph, and the fourteenth-century "Tale of 


AS YOU LIKE IT 


159 


Gamelyn.” Another thread of the "As You Like It” plot is, 
of course, the still more familiar one of mistaken identity. This 
part of the plot is complicated by the additional pair of lovers, 
Silvius and Phebe. The type of plot structure in "As You Like 
It ” is essentially different from that of " The Merchant of Ven¬ 
ice.” Instead of two main parallel actions connected by the link 
actions of the underplots, we have a central scene of action, — 
namely, the Forest of Arden,— into which all the characters from 
the outer enveloping actions are finally drawn. (See Moulton’s 
" Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist.”) " As You Like It ” is so 
loosely constructed that it is usually acted with a number of the 
scenes omitted. How is it possible to do this without destroying 
the unity of the play ? 

Discussion of the following subjects should stimulate interest: 

1. Where else have you read of situations which depend for their 
interest upon a mistake in identity? Consider, for instance, Shake¬ 
speare’s "Comedy of Errors,” "Twelfth Night,” the ring story in 
" The Merchant of Venice,” Goldsmith’s " She Stoops to Conquer,” 
Sheridan’s " Rivals ” and " School for Scandal,” Dickens’s " Tale of 
Two Cities.” 

2. Can the improbability of the situation in the forest scenes be¬ 
tween Rosalind and Orlando be overcome? (See Furness’s "New 
Variorum Edition,” pp. 178-179.) 

The Characters. In "As You Like It” is the interest in the 
characters stronger than the interest in the events ? Why does 
Rosalind assume her disguise? Compare her in this respect 
with Viola and Portia. (See p. 21.) Give illustrations from the 
text of what Hudson says about Rosalind’s wit and humor 
(pp. 20-21); of what Mrs. Jameson says about her charm. Do 
you agree with Hudson when he says that the play has no hero 
(p. n)? when he says that it is uncertain whether Jaques or 
Rosalind is the greater attraction (p. 19) ? If Orlando " would 
not be cured,” why does he continue Rosalind’s remedy for love ? 
What is the source of Jaques’ cynicism ? (See Duke Senior’s 
speech, p. 71, also Introduction, p. 19.) What marked difference 
is there between Touchstone’s jesting and Launcelot Gobbo’s? 


i6o 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Which of the two clowns seems more mature ? Of what charac¬ 
ters in other plays does Amiens remind you ? Is Oliver’s con¬ 
version improbable ? Is Duke Frederick’s ? Are these sudden 
reformations in character excused by the title of the play ? (See 
p. 22.) What lines from Wordsworth express appreciation of 
the influence of nature similar to that spoken by Duke Senior 
in Act II, scene i? 

Themes may be written upon the characters of Rosalind, 
Jaques, Touchstone, Orlando, Duke Senior, Adam, and Shake¬ 
speare’s fools. 

Construction and Style. "As* You Like It” is a noteworthy 
example of the art with which Shakespeare adapts the form of 
his dramas to the content, or, if you please, of his absence of 
art or construction. Why are so many scenes spoken in prose ? 
(See Construction and Style in the Study of " Macbeth.”) Are 
the improbabilities of the play a serious hindrance to our enjoy¬ 
ment of it? (See Introduction, pp. 23-24.) Point out fine 
poetical passages. In what way is the speech of the melancholy 
Jaques poetical? Pick out words which have in this play a . 
different significance from that they have in the language of 
to-day. Point out famous quotations from the play. Do you 
understand the two speeches of Touchstone in Act V, scene iv, 
in which he talks about " the Retort Courteous ” ? Does this 
play contain more lyrical poetry than is usually found in one of 
Shakespeare’s dramas ? Point out obsolete words in Act II, 
scene iii. 

The following special topics may be discussed: 

1. A comparison of " As You Like It ” and Lodge’s " Rosalynde.” 
(The latter, as we have seen, is reprinted in Furness’s "New 
Variorum Edition ” and in the Standard English Classics.) 

2. A comparison of the temper of "As You Like It ’’ with that of 
other Shakespearean comedies. (See Introduction, pp. 22-28.) 

3. Shakespeare’s treatment of external nature. (See pp. 25-28, 
and illustrate by quotations from the text.) 

4. The songs of "As You Like It.” (See Furness’s "New Vari¬ 
orum Edition,” footnotes on the songs, also pp. 434-438. 


JULIUS CESAR 


161 


Shakespeare’s Life and Work. For general questions on 
Shakespeare’s life see " Life and Work ” in the Study of, " Mac¬ 
beth.” To what period of his life does " As You Like It ” belong ? 
What mood of the poet is expressed in this drama ? (See Intro¬ 
duction, pp. 27-28.) From a study of the sources of his plots 
what can be inferred as to Shakespeare’s attitude toward his 
work? (See Introduction, pp. 5-6, 10-11.) What interesting 
tradition connects "As You Like It” with Shakespeare’s life 
as an actor ? (See Introduction, p. 4.) 

JULIUS CESAR 

Introduction. For general methods of studying Shakespeare, 
see Introduction to the Study of " Macbeth.” 

Class study of the play may begin with the reading aloud of 
the opening scenes by pupils who take the parts of the several 
characters. At first the teacher may supply the necessary infor¬ 
mation, pointing out the art of Shakespeare in striking the key¬ 
note of faction in the first scene and in foreshadowing also the 
importance of the populace in the plot. When his interest has 
thus been secured, the pupil will not find the study of the foot¬ 
notes a task. Pupils should memorize favorite passages for 
oral recitation. Such simple scenes as the persuasion of Brutus 
by Cassius (pp. 46-54) and the quarrel scene (pp. 137-143) 
should be acted in class. More ambitious scenes may be under¬ 
taken if pupils show aptitude for acting. 

For comparison with the characters and the story of " Julius 
Caesar,” pupils may read Shakespeare’s " Coriolanus ” and 
" Antony and Cleopatra ” ; and Macaulay’s " Lays of Ancient 
Rome.” 

The Setting. In spite of his " small Latin and less Greek,” 
Shakespeare’s " Julius Caesar ” is said to revive the atmosphere 
of ancient Rome as Ben Jonson’s " Catiline” and " Sejanus,” 
with all their careful scholarship, cannot revive it. Explain the 
meaning of this comment and show how this result has been 
accomplished. Compare " Julius Caesar ” in time and place with 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


162 


Shakespeare’s other Roman plays. Point out the relation 
between the plot and the background of storm and portent. 
(Act I, scene iii; Act II, scene ii.) 

Some of the following subjects may be used for short talks 
or themes: 

1. Roman society in the days of Caesar. (See p. 44, note; also 

Mommsen’s "History of Rome," and Fowler’s "Social Life at 
Rome.’’) • 

2. Parties in Rome about 44 b.c. (See pp. 181-185; also Meri- 
vale’s " The Roman Triumvirates.’’) 

3. The Roman Senate. (See p. 182; also Abbott’s "Roman 
Political Institutions.’’) 

4. Roman triumphs. (See Act I, scene i; also Guhl and Koner’s 
"Life of the Greeks and Romans.’’) 

5. Roman festivals. (See Act I, scene ii; also Fowler’s " Roman 
Festivals.’’) 

6. Roman auguries. (See Act II, scene ii; also Guhl and Koner’s 
" Life of the Greeks and Romans.’’) 

7. Shakespeare’s anachronisms in "Julius Caesar." (See numer¬ 
ous footnotes throughout the play on the transfer of English customs 
to Rome.) 

The Story and the Incidents. Although "Julius Caesar" is 
possibly Shakespeare’s greatest historical drama, it is classed 
among the tragedies because the struggle which constitutes the 
dramatic action ends in failure for the side on which Shake¬ 
speare enlists our sympathy. With the teacher’s help, pupils 
may trace the " rising action," in which events favor the con¬ 
spirators, up to the crisis or turning point in Act III, and observe 
that the dramatic center of the play very nearly coincides with 
its mechanical center. Similarly, they may follow the "falling 
action," which favors the enemies of the conspirators, and observe 
how the catastrophe comes as the direct consequence of the 
crisis. They should note the dramatic point of each act and of 
the most important scenes. Thus Act I develops the instigation 
of the conspiracy as follows: Scene i strikes the keynote of 
faction. Scene ii sets forth the political conditions which form 
the background of the tragedy and furnish the " exciting force " 



JULIUS CESAR 


63 


of the " rising action.” The " rising action ” is itself initiated 
in Cassius’ subtle persuasion of Brutus. Scene iii advances 
the "rising action” by showing the progress of the conspiracy. 
Here, too, Shakespeare symbolizes by the confusion in external 
nature the civil and moral disorder of the times. (Cf. " Macbeth,” 
Act II, scene iv.) Act II of " Julius Caesar ” develops the definite 
formation and partial execution of the plot to assassinate Caesar. 
Scene i shows the conspirators gathered in Brutus’ orchard to 
determine the details of the plot. Scene ii creates suspense at 
first by Caesar’s refusal to go to the Capitol, but in the end ad¬ 
vances the " rising action ” by Caesar’s change of mind under 
the influence of the mocking speeches of Decius. Scenes iii 
and iv, while apparently suspending the action of the play, really 
heighten the effect of the great scene of the assassination, which 
opens the next act. These scenes serve also the mechanical 
purpose of allowing a lapse of time during which the Senate 
convenes, and scene iv gives valuable insight into Portia’s char¬ 
acter. Act III continues the " rising action ” to the turning 
point in the second scene. Scene i presents the assassination. 
Compare the delay in this scene before the moment of final 
action with the long suspense of the trial scene in "The Mer¬ 
chant of Venice.” Scene ii shows that, though Caesar’s body 
lies dead, the conspirators have yet to reckon with his spirit, 
revealed in the feeling of the mob. The speech of Antony, 
which so speedily undoes the work of Brutus, is the turning 
point of the play. The sympathetic response of the populace 
to Antony’s appeal shows the tide of feeling setting against the 
conspirators and initiates the " falling action.” Scene iii shows 
the hurried movement of the "falling action” in the unreason¬ 
ing fury of the Roman mob. Acts IV and V now bring the 
" falling action ” by rapid stages to the " catastrophe ” of the 
play, the defeat and death of the conspirators. With Act IV, 
scene i, the characters of the opposition come into prominence. 
We see them dividing the threefold world among themselves 
and plotting the ruin of the conspirators. Scenes ii and iii empha¬ 
size the hopelessness of the conspirators’ cause by bringing out 


164 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


the subjection of the practical politician Cassius to the idealistic 
philosopher Brutus. At the same time, by bringing out in scene 
iii the noblest traits of Brutus, Shakespeare keeps up our sym¬ 
pathy for him, despite his mistakes and failure. The appearance 
of the ghost also foreshadows the triumph of the spirit of 
Caesar. Act V works out the "catastrophe” through the quick 
succession of battle scenes. (Compare Act V of " Macbeth.”) 
It is well to have pupils recite Shakespeare’s account of the 
battle of Philippi for a clear understanding of the events lead¬ 
ing to the suicides of Cassius and Brutus. 

Enumerate Brutus’ mistakes in judgment and explain their 
effect upon the action of the play. (Acts II-IV.) 

The following questions may arouse interesting class debates : 

1. Is the play rightly named? (See p. 10, and p. 17, note.) 

2. Could the conspiracy have succeeded, had the advice of Cassius 
rather than that of Brutus been followed? (See pp. 17, 20, 22, 24- 
26, 184.) 

The Characters. What aspect of Caesar does Shakespeare 
emphasize in the first part of the play ? (See Act I, scenes ii, 
iii; Act II, scene ii; Act III, scene i; also pp. 10-17.) How 
does this portrait compare with the facts of history ? (See pp. 
18-23, 1 75— 1 77> 185-190; also Froude’s "Caesar”; Fowler’s 
"Julius Caesar and the Foundation of the Roman Imperial 
System ” ; Oman’s " Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Re¬ 
public.”) Are Brutus and Cassius actuated by the same motives 
in joining the conspiracy? (See pp. 31-33; also Dowden’s 
" Shakspere,” pp. 251-252.) Is Antony’s devotion to Caesar en¬ 
tirely disinterested ? What traits of Antony make him victorious 
in the struggle against the conspirators ? (See Act III, scene ii; 
Act IV, scene i; Act V, scenes i, iv.) Is the developed char¬ 
acter in " Antony and Cleopatra ” suggested by the Antony of 
"Julius Caesar”? (See Introduction, p. 35.) With whom do 
you sympathize, Antony or Brutus ? With which of these char¬ 
acters does Shakespeare intend you to sympathize ? Does the 
slightly sketched Octavius prefigure what you know of the; 


JULIUS CESAR 


165 

emperor Augustus ? (See Introduction to " Antony and Cleo¬ 
patra,” Ginn edition.) Is Brutus a good or a bad character? 
If Antony’s speech about Brutus (p. 174) is true, why was the 
latter’s life a tragedy ? Was it in any way a success ? (See p. 
172.) Have you known men like Brutus? like Cassius? like 
Antony ? What traits has Portia in common with other Roman 
matrons; for instance, the mother of the Gracchi, or Volumnia 
in " Coriolanus ” ? (See Act II, scene i; Act IV, scene iii; also 
pp. 33-34 ; Introduction to " Coriolanus,” Ginn edition.) Would 
the omission of the character of Lucius be a loss to the play ? 
(See p. 150, note; also Woodbridge’s " The Drama, its Law and 
its Technique,” pp. 125-126 ; and Moulton’s " Shakespeare as 
a Dramatic Artist,” pp. 173-174.) What part is played by the 
Roman populace? (See Act I, scene ii; Act III, scenes ii, iii; 
also pp. 36-37, 175-181.) 

The following subjects are suitable for short themes: 

1. A comparison of Brutus and Cassius. 

2. An ideal Roman matron. 

3. A typical Roman demagogue. 

4. The Roman populace. 

Construction and Style. What reasons have led critics to 
give "Julius Caesar” an earlier place in the order of Shake¬ 
speare’s plays than was formerly given ? (See pp. 4-8.) How 
closely does Shakespeare follow historical sources for his drama ? 
(See pp. 8-10, and compare text with extracts from Plutarch 
given in footnotes throughout the play.) Are the speeches of 
Antony and Brutus in the Forum scene in keeping with their 
characters ? Antony’s oration has been acted by students in a 
deaf-mute college as a shadow pantomime. Could such a rep¬ 
resentation be given of Brutus’ speech ? What are the qualities 
in Antony’s oration that offset so successfully the effect of 
Brutus’ speech? (See Dowden’s " Shakspere,” pp. 267-268; 
also Ransome’s " Short Studies in Shakespeare’s Plots.”) Why 
does Shakespeare use prose in parts of Act I, scenes i, ii, 
and Act III, scene ii ? (See the Study of " Macbeth,” under 
Construction and Style.) 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


166 

Explain " trophies” (p. 43, line 14); " vulgar” (p. 44, line 
1) ; " merely ” (p. 47, line 3); " his ” (p. 51, line 5) ; " Colos¬ 
sus” (p. 52, line 7); "conceited” (p. 71, line 13); "general” 
(p. 72, line 12); "condition” (p. 86, line 17); "mortified 
spirit ” (p. 90, line 7); " unshaked of motion ” (p. 105, line 19) ; 
"thorough” (p. 109, line 18); "censure” (p. 117, line 16); 
"wit” (p. 126, line 27); "indirection” (p. 141, line 3); 
"stomachs” (p. 157, line 13). Add to this list words and 
expressions which it is important to remember because Shake¬ 
speare used them frequently in a sense not modern. Note par¬ 
ticularly those which are misleading because their meaning 
seems to be clear. Point out the most poetic passages in each 
act; the most beautiful lines. 

The following special topics may be discussed: 

1. Shakespeare’s use of dramatic irony.,. (See pp. 15-16, 105, note.) 

2. Shakespeare’s knowledge of oratory as shown in the Forum 
scene. 

3. Shakespeare’s purpose in bringing out Caesar’s weaknesses. (See 
pp. 10-17 ; also Dowden’s " Shakspere,” pp. 253-256, and Brandes’ 
" William Shakespeare,” p. 307.) 

Shakespeare’s Life and Work. For a general treatment, see 
Life and Work under the Study of " Macbeth.” What literary 
activity of the Renaissance movement in England placed within 
Shakespeare’s reach an English translation of Plutarch? At 
what period of his life did the dramatist write " Julius Caesar ” ? 
What circumstances of this period may have inclined Shake¬ 
speare towards writing a play based upon political revolt ? (See 
Brandes’ " William Shakespeare,” pp. 304-305.) Judging from 
the plays you have read, do you consider Shakespeare aristo¬ 
cratic or democratic in his sympathies? (See Introduction to 
' Coriolanus,” Ginn edition; also Brandes’ "William Shake¬ 
speare,” pp. 109-112. Consult Bagehot’s Shakespeare the Man 
in "Literary Studies.”) 


TWELFTH NIGHT 


167 


TWELFTH NIGHT 

Introduction. For general suggestions as to methods of 
studying Shakespeare, see Introduction to the Study of " Mac¬ 
beth.” " Twelfth Night ” is perhaps the brightest and merriest 
of all Shakespeare’s comedies. The pupils should get into the 
spirit of it, abandoning themselves with Shakespeare himself to 
fun and frolic. The teacher may furnish necessary explanations 
in connection with the reading aloud of the first three scenes. 
By the time this has been done the pupil’s own interest in the 
plot and in the fun of the comic characters should make further 
study of the notes a pleasure. Some of the scenes should be 
acted in class, if possible, especially Act II, scenes iii, v. 

In respect to characters and situation, "Twelfth Night” con¬ 
stantly suggests "As You Like It” and "The Merchant of 
Venice.” Pupils will also enjoy reading, for a description of the 
old English celebratioi) of Twelfth Night, the sketches of.an 
English Christmas in Irving’s " Sketch Book.” 

The Setting. The background of this play is not so clearly 
defined as that of " As You Like It ” or that of " The Merchant 
of Venice.” It is merely some part of " Illyria.” Some of the 
characters are Italian in name, while others] are just as plainly 
English. The apparent incongruities are all covered, however, by 
the careless, jolly spirit indicated in the title. The celebration of 
Twelfth Night was marked by an absence of decorum; more¬ 
over, the secondary title, " What You Will,” suggests that the 
dramatist is allowing himself unusual license. (See Introduction, 
pp. 26-28.) What seems to be Shakespeare’s attitude toward 
the Puritan movement ? Can you explain it ? (See Introduction, 
p. 5; p. 90, note; Brandes’"William Shakespeare,” pp. 231-232.) 

The following subjects may be used for short talks or themes: 

1. Twelfth Night and its celebration. (See Introduction, p. 26; 
also Brandes’ "William Shakespeare,” p. 234; Ulrici’s "Shake¬ 
speare’s Dramatic Art,” Vol. II, p. 5 ; Knight’s " Pictorial Shakspere,” 
Vol. II of " Comedies,” pp. 183 ff.; Verplanck’s " Illustrated Shake¬ 
speare,” Vol. II of "Twelfth Night,” p. 6.) 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


168 


2. The place and the occasion of the first presentation of Shake¬ 
speare’s " Twelfth Night.” (See Introduction, pp. 3-4, also Knight’s 
" Pictorial Shakspere,” Vol. II of "Comedies,” pp. 183 ff.; see also 
description of Middle Temple Hall in Hawthorne’s " English Note- 
Books.” In this connection the class may be interested to know that 
" Twelfth Night ” was presented in the still well-preserved Middle 
Temple Hall as a part of the coronation festivities of the late King 
Edward VII. 

3. Puritan opposition to the drama. (See Introduction, pp. 4-5 ; 
Green’s " Short History of the English People,” p. 527; Brandes’ 
"William Shakespeare,” pp. 99-100.) 

The Story and the Incidents. The main plot of " Twelfth 
Night” is made up of a double love complication based upon 
the familiar device of mistaken identity. This is further com¬ 
plicated by the comic underplot, the action of which consists 
in working out the practical jokes upon Malvolio and Sir 
Andrew. The connecting link between the two groups of char¬ 
acters is Viola in her capacity as the E)uke’s messenger. The 
dramatic structure may be analyzed in part as follows: Act I, 
scene i, strikes the keynote of love and music that dominates 
the play. Scene ii gives the exposition of circumstances neces¬ 
sary to explain Viola’s disguise, on which the main action de¬ 
pends. Scene iii introduces the characters of the underplot and 
prepares for the jealousy of Sir Andrew, which culminates in 
the important scene of the duel. Scenes iv and v initiate the 
" rising action ” or " entanglement ” of the play by letting us 
into the secret of the crossed loves of Viola and Olivia. Acts 
II and III advance the " rising action ” of both main and under¬ 
plot to the turning point in Act III, scene v, where the mistake in 
the identity of Viola and Sebastian is made clear. Acts IV and 
V 'merely work out the disentanglement to its happy solution. 
For examples of more complete plot analysis by acts and scenes, 
see " Macbeth ” and " Julius Caesar.” 

Pupils may be interested in discussing the following matters : 

1. Point out various sources of comic interest in the play, as, the 
mistaken identity, carousing, practical joking, general good feeling, 
happy endings, satire, etc. 


TWELFTH NIGHT 


169 

2. In what other plays is there a combination of poetic and 
farcical scenes? Compare, for instance, "A Midsummer Night’s 
Dream.” 

3. Do you approve the usual farcical treatment of the duel scene 
on the stage, in which Viola is made to run from Sir Andrew ? (See 
note to this scene in Furness’s " New Variorum Edition.”) 

The Characters. Do you agree with Hudson’s remark (Intro¬ 
duction, p. 10), that "the characters of this play are generally 
less interesting in themselves than some we meet with else¬ 
where in the poet’s works ” ? Justify your answer from your 
study of the text. Why in the acting of " Twelfth Night ” is 
the part of Malvolio assigned to the " star ” of the company ? 
(See pp. 12-15.) I s Malvolio a natural character, that is, do you 
know people like him ? What does Shakespeare satirize in Mal¬ 
volio ? Show from his own speeches that Orsino was not really in 
love with Olivia. (See also pp. 20-21 of Introduction.) Is Olivia 
unwomanly in her revelation of herself to the Duke’s messen¬ 
ger ? (See pp. 17-19 of the Introduction.) Compare Olivia and 
Portia as mistresses of their households. Is Viola as much at 
ease in her disguise as Rosalind or Portia ? Why does she not 
treat the proffered love of Olivia as Rosalind treats that of 
Phebe ? Does she forget her part in her fear of the duel ? How 
does she compare with Rosalind and Portia in wit ? in tender¬ 
ness of feeling? (See pp. 22-24; Mrs. Jameson’s " Character¬ 
istics of Women”; Brandes’ "William Shakespeare,” p. 234.) 
Which traits of Sir Toby justify critics in calling him typically 
English ? Does he remind you of any other comic character of 
Shakespeare’s? (See Introduction, p. 10.) Does Sir Andrew 
suggest any other character of Shakespeare’s ? (See p. 11.) 
How does Maria compare with other waiting women in 
Shakespeare’s plays,—with Nerissa, for example? What ac¬ 
complishment of Feste’s distinguishes him from Touchstone 
and Launcelot Gobbo ? (See Introduction, pp. 15-16; and 
Brandes’ "William Shakespeare,” p. 236.) What characters 
seem to you to be the most original to the play? Is the 
number large? 


170 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


The following topics may be discussed: 

1. The different types of humor in the play. 

2. Comparison of Viola with Rosalind. (In addition to references 
given above, see Lady Martin’s " Some of Shakespeare’s Female 
Characters,” p. 263.) 

3. A comparison of Touchstone and Feste. 

4. Some physical and mental conventions of Shakespeare’s 
regarding men, as Sir Toby, Falstaff, Sir Andrew, Malvolio. 
Compare Caesar’s 

Let me have men about me that are fat, 

Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep o’ nights: 

Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look; 

He thinks too much: such men are dangerous. 

”J u h us Caesar,” I, ii. 

Construction and Style. Note the dramatic contrasts secured 
by grouping the characters into the poetic and refined and the 
comic and vulgar character groups of the play. What character 
serves as a connecting link between the groups, unifying the 
action of the play ? In this connection note also the changes 
from verse to prose. How do you account for them ? (See Con¬ 
struction and Style in the Study of " Macbeth.”) Observe also 
with what care Shakespeare varies his scenes between these 
different groups. What peculiar charm of style does Hudson 
discern in " Twelfth Night ” ? (See pp. 8-9.) The spirit of 
music and song which prevails throughout the play is in keep¬ 
ing with the atmosphere of " Twelfth Night,” as is also the 
epilogue sung by the clown, whom Shakespeare, with the in¬ 
stinct of genius, leaves alone upon the stage, as a fitting con¬ 
clusion to this merry drama. 

Explain "element” (p. 31, line 1); "perchance” (p. 32, 
line 3); "allow” (p. 34, line 13); "but” (p. 41, line 14); 
"comptible” (p. 50, line 2); "round” (p. 63, line 12); "pos¬ 
sess ” (p. 65, line 15) ; " silly sooth ” (p. 69, line 14) ; " strange, 
stout” (p. 80, line 18); "more matter for a May morning” 
(p. 101, line 10) ; " go to ” (p. 111, line 4) in its various mean¬ 
ings ; "deceivable” (p. 121, line 1). Add to this list words 
and expressions which it is important to remember because, as 


KING HENRY THE FIFTH 


171 

you learn from the footnotes or elsewhere, Shakespeare uses 
them frequently in a sense not modem. Note particularly those 
which are misleading because their meaning seems to be clear. 
Point out the most poetic passages in each act; the most 
beautiful lines. 

The following special topics may be discussed or used as 
theme topics: 

1. The sources of the plot and Shakespeare’s additions to them. 
How are they adapted to the play? (See pp. 6-8; and for repro¬ 
duction of originals, see Furness’s ** New Variorum Edition,” pp. 
326-377.) 

2. Some fine passages in the play. How are these characteristic 
of the speakers? 

3. The songs in " Twelfth Night.” (See footnotes in Furness’s 
" New Variorum Edition ” ; also pp. 322-323 of the same.) 

Shakespeare’s Life and Work. For general questions on 
Shakespeare’s life, see Life and Work in the Study of " Mac¬ 
beth.” By what external and internal evidence is the date of 
composition of " Twelfth Night ” fixed ? In what period of 
Shakespeare’s life does this place " Twelfth Night ” ? (See 
Life and Work in the Study of " Macbeth.”) What mood of the 
poet finds expression in it ? (See Introduction, p. 28.) 

The following subjects may be discussed in class: 

1. Should the advice given by the Duke at the bottom of page 68 
be understood as based upon Shakespeare’s personal experience? 
(See Furness’s ” New Variorum Edition,” pp. 138-140, note.) 

2. Shakespeare’s attitude towards Puritanism. (See Introduction, 
p. 5 ; also Brandes’ "William Shakespeare,” pp. 231-232.) 


KING HENRY THE FIFTH 

Introduction. For a general method of studying Shakespeare, 
see Introduction to the Study of "Macbeth.” Shakespeare’s 
English historical plays, however, and more especially " Henry 
V,” are so different in their conception and execution from his 
other dramas that they demand a modified treatment. 


172 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


In " Henry V ” the interest centers in patriotism. Every¬ 
thing else is subordinated to the thought of England’s glory. 
In " Julius Caesar ” and " Macbeth ” there is a dramatic con¬ 
flict of forces. Our interest centers in the spiritual conflict 
working out in Brutus and Macbeth. There is nothing of this 
kind in " Henry V.” It is true that the king dominates the 
play throughout, but he dominates it by virtue of his typifying 
the popular conception of the national hero. Good stage repre¬ 
sentations of the play, like that of the late Mr. Mansfield, show 
the whole to be a splendid emblazoning of the heroic, or one 
man, ideal (now obsolete in politics), — with the fine central 
figure of Henry surrounded by a galaxy of lesser heroes, both 
noble and lowborn. 

Hence it is necessary to have an understanding of the his¬ 
torical setting in order to appreciate the exalted mood of the 
play. This study of the setting would far better come through 
Shakespeare himself. Ulrici well says: M ' Henry Y ’ may be 
regarded as the directly succeeding third act of the great his¬ 
torical drama of five acts beginning with ' Richard II ’ and 
ending with ' Richard III/ ” If possible, then, the study of 
" Henry V ” should be preceded by the reading of " Richard 
II ” and " Henry IV,” and followed by the reading of " Henry 
VI ” and " Richard III.” If this cannot be done, summaries of 
these plays, especially " Henry VI,” may be given. In classes 
where English history has been studied previous to the taking 
up of " Henry V,” it will be a simple matter to review the 
historical events which form the background of the plays. 
" Henry IV,” at any rate, ought to be read in order to get the 
rounded character of Henry V as prince and king. It may be 
interesting to the pupils to know that the three-hundredth an¬ 
niversary of Shakespeare’s birth was celebrated in Weimar by 
the performance of the whole cycle of historical plays. 

Pupils should commit to memory for oral recitation some of 
the poetic passages cited on page 34. 

To compare Shakespeare with the facts of history one may 
read sections covering the historical dramas in Green’s " Short 


KING HENRY THE FIFTH 


173 


History of the English People ” or in any good school history 
of England. Michael Drayton’s spirited " Ballad of Agincourt ” 
may be read aloud in class. 

The Setting. Throughout Shakespeare’s " Henry V ” the 
action moves in the limited, definite world of fact. Compare 
it, or any of the historical plays, with " A Midsummer Night’s 
Dream,” which is the very antithesis to " Henry V,” or with 
those dramas whose action crosses so easily from the actual 
into the shadowy world of spirits, " Hamlet ” and " Macbeth.” 
Of this play Dowden says (" Shakspere, His Mind and Art,” 
p. 147), "The world represented is the limited world of the 
practicable ” ; and again (ibid., p. 189), " The central element in 
the character of Henry V is his noble realization of fact ” ; and 
once again (ibid., p. 186), speaking of the historical plays, 
" These plays are, as Schlegel has said, a * mirror for kings,’ 
and the characters of these plays all lead up to Henry V, the 
man framed for the most noble and joyous mastery of things.” 

Hence in order to be at home in this world of fact, of action, 
we must know the circumstances of the struggle between 
France and England, of Henry IV’s accession to the throne, 
of Henry V’s desire for foreign conquest. 

The following subjects for themes will help in the developing 
of a grasp of the historical background: 

1. The first half of the Hundred Years’ War. 

2. The second half of the Hundred Years’ War. 

3. Methods of warfare in the fifteenth century. 

4. The English claim to the throne of France. (See pp. 6-7 ; also 
Green’s " Short History of the English People,” p. 267.) 

5. The French campaigns of Henry V. (See pp. 7-9; also Green’s 
" Short History of the English People,” pp. 267-270.) 

6. The battle of Agincourt. (See Act IV; Green’s " Short His¬ 
tory of the English People,” pp. 268.) 

7. Henry’s real purpose in reopening the war with France. 
(See p. 6.) 

The Story and the Incidents. How do the limitations of 
Shakespeare’s subject matter in " Henry V ” affect the 


174 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


dramatic value of the play? (See Introduction, pp. 6-10 ; also 
Ulrici’s " Shakespeare’s Dramatic Art,” Vol. II, p. 257.) Note 
that instead of a short opening scene which strikes the keynote 
of the play, as in " Macbeth ” and " Julius Caesar,” we have in 
the choruses that introduce the acts a recurrence again and 
again to the dominant key of a "jubilant patriotism.” This 
gives to " Henry V ” the effect of being more lyrical than dra¬ 
matic. (See Introduction, p. 34.) Although no such careful 
dramatic analysis is possible as in the plots of " Macbeth ” and 
" Julius Caesar,” we have in the praises of Ely and Canterbury 
in Act I, scene i, a foreshadowing of the glorification of Henry as 
the national hero ; in the demands of the French ambassadors, 
Act I, scene ii, and in the necessity of diverting the people’s 
minds from the civil broils set forth in Act II, scene i, the " excit¬ 
ing force ” of the war which is the theater for the king’s display 
of patriotism ; in the battle scenes of Acts III and IV a" rising 
action ” developed to a kind of turning point in the battle of Agin- 
court (Act IV), and ending in the happy solution of the inter¬ 
national marriage in Act V. What gives a sense of unity to all the 
scenes of the play? (See Introduction, pp. 9-10.) Why does not 
Shakespeare keep the promise of the Epilogue, in " Henry IV,” 
to continue the story with Sir John Falstaff in it ? (See Intro¬ 
duction, pp. 10-12.) What dramatic value have the characters 
of Pistol, Bardolph, and Corporal Nym ? (See Introduction, 
p. 12.) Do you consider Act III, scene iv, " ridiculous,” as War- 
burton declares ? Would you, as one editor has done, omit it 
altogether? Give reasons for your answer. 

The following questions will give rise to short talks in class: 

1. Have you heard or read of other generals or rulers who 
mingled with the common people without revealing their identity? 
Compare legends about Napoleon, and the night adventures of 
Harun-al-Rashid in the "Arabian Nights." 

2. Of what other comical familiarity between a king and his sub¬ 
ject does Henry V’s exchange of a gage with Williams remind you ? 
Compare the exchange of blows between the Black Knight and Friar 
Tuck in " Ivanhoe." 


KING HENRY THE FIFTH 


175 


The Characters. The characters of the play are all grouped in 
some relation to the dominating personality of the king. Dowden 
says (" Shakspere, His Mind and Art,” p. 186): "The unmis¬ 
takable enthusiasm of Shakespeare about his Henry V has in¬ 
duced critics to believe that in him we find his ideal of manhood. 
He must certainly be regarded as Shakespeare’s ideal of man¬ 
hood in the sense of practical achievement.” Do you agree 
with this judgment ? Support your answer with evidence from 
the text. Compare Ruskin’s dictum (" Sesame and Lilies,” § 56): 
" There is not one entirely heroic figure in all his plays, except 
the slight sketch of Henry the Fifth, exaggerated for the pur¬ 
poses of the stage; and the still slighter Valentine in 'The Two 
Gentlemen of Verona.’ ” What other types of manhood in other 
plays might also be cited as possible ideals of Shakespeare’s ? 
For instance, consider Brutus in " Julius Caesar,” and Antonio 
in " The Merchant of Venice.” Can we reconcile the Henry, 
Prince of Wales, in " Henry IV ” with the developed character 
in " Henry V ” ? (See Introduction, pp. 16-22 ; also Dowden’s 
" Shakspere, His Mind and Art,” pp. 186-189.) Illustrate 
from the text Hudson’s declaration that the character of Henry 
V " may almost be said to consist of piety, honesty, and mod¬ 
esty.” (See Introduction, p. 22.) Should any exception be made 
to this statement? (See Introduction, pp. 24-25.) Is there 
anything personal in Henry’s wrath against Scroop, Grey, and 
Cambridge? (See Introduction, pp. 17-18; also Dowden’s 
" Shakspere, His Mind and Art,” pp. 194-195.) Compare 
Shakespeare’s delineation of national characteristics in Fluellen, 
Jamy, and Macmorris, with his portrayal of national weaknesses 
in Portia’s suitors. Has he any other than a comic purpose in 
creating the Welsh, Scotch, and Irish characters ? (See Intro¬ 
duction, p. 14; also Brandes’ "William Shakespeare,” p. 207.) 
What traits of Henry are brought out in his wooing of Catha¬ 
rine ? Are the traits of Fluellen, Jamy, and Macmorris observ¬ 
able in representatives of their respective nationalities to-day 
either in life or in fiction ? Can you name any other great 
national heroes whose characters resemble that of Henry V ? 


176 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


The following subjects are suitable for short themes or 
discussions: 

1. The influence of the court of Henry IV in molding the char¬ 
acter of Henry V. (See Introduction, pp. 10-19.) 

2. Henry and Falstaff. (Read the Falstaff scenes of" Henry IV,” 
and see Introduction, pp. 19-22.) 

3. A comparison of Henry the Prince with Henry the King. (In 
connection with this, Henry’s dramatic repudiation of Falstaff, " Henry 
IV,” Part II, Act V, scene v, should be read aloud; or, better still, 
the whole scene should be acted in class.) 

4. A comparison of Henry the man with Henry the king. (See 
Introduction, pp. 26-30, and quote from the text.) 

5. The religion of Henry V. (See Introduction, pp. 30-32, and 
study Henry’s spirit throughout the play, especially in the battle 
scenes.) 

6. Are the French people caricatured? (See Introduction, pp. 

35 - 36 .) 

Construction and Style. " Henry V,” says Brandes in his 
"William Shakespeare” (p. 204), "is a National Anthem in 
five acts.” What peculiarities of construction and style justify 
such a statement? (See Introduction, p. 9.) Note the contrast 
in tone gained by presenting alternately scenes from the French 
camp and scenes from the English camp. What effect is pro¬ 
duced by the numerous scenes of Act IV ? Compare the scenes 
of the fifth acts of " Julius Caesar ” and " Macbeth.” Study 
the eloquence and lyric beauty of the choruses. Why does the 
historical background of " Henry IV ” admit of more dramatic 
treatment than that of " Henry V ” ? 

Explain "lazars” (p. 40, line n); "hydra-headed wilful¬ 
ness” (p. 41, line 3); "giddy neighbor” (p. 50, line 8); 
"waxen epitaph” (p. 53, line 26); "quick” (p. 68, line 13); 
"bolted” (p. 71, line 1); "to” (p. 83, note 5); "bravely” 
(p. 132, line 2) ; " raught ” (p. 140, line 4) ; " nice ” (p. 166, last 
line). Add to this list words and expressions which it is impor¬ 
tant to remember because Shakespeare uses them frequently in 
a sense not modem. Note particularly those which are mislead¬ 
ing because their meaning seems to be clear. 


THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 


1 77 


Pupils may discuss the following topics: 

1. The sources of the plot. (See Introduction, p. 6.) 

2. Shakespeare’s handling of his raw material. 

3. The value of the additions made in the first folio edition of 
the play. 

4. The value of the scraps of French in Act IV, scene v. (See note 
on p. 138; also Brandes’ "William Shakespeare," p. 206.) 

5. Fine lines and passages. What is the dominant idea in each 
of Henry’s speeches ? Analyze in particular that beginning " Upon 
the King," and compare its purpose with that of the speech at the 
storming of Harfleur, the reply to the French heralds, and the ex¬ 
hortation to Westmoreland. 

Shakespeare’s Life and Work. To what period of Shake¬ 
speare’s life does " Henry V ” belong ? (See Life and Work 
in the Study of " Macbeth.”) With the place of what similar 
plays in modern life may the place occupied by English historical 
plays in the reign of Elizabeth be compared ? (See Wood- 
bridge’s "The Drama, Its Law and Its Technique,” p. 18.) 
How can we account for the vogue of historical plays in the 
reign of Elizabeth ? Can Shakespeare’s undue prejudice against 
the French be excused ? (See pp. 34-36 of the Introduction; 
also Brandes’ "William Shakespeare,” p. 206.) What deduc¬ 
tion as to Shakespeare’s literary habits may be made from the 
various texts of " Henry V ” ? (See Introduction, pp. 3-5.) 

THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 

Introduction. For general suggestions about methods of 
studying Shakespeare, see Introduction to the Study of " Mac¬ 
beth.” "The Merchant of Venice” is commonly considered 
the most perfect example of romantic comedy. (See pp. 77- 
78.) For this reason it well repays careful study. As much as 
possible of it should be acted in class, and numerous selections 
from its poetic passages should be committed to memory. 

The first line suggests the atmosphere that is to prevail 
throughout a large part of the play. Why was Antonio sad? 
In the opening speeches the attention of pupils should be 


i 7 8 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


directed to the vividness and picturesqueness of the language. 
The three scenes of the first act, which introduce the two 
main stories of the plot, should be read aloud in class, the 
several parts being assigned to different pupils. This done, the 
pupils should be interested sufficiently to find study of the notes 
a help rather than a task. 

For comparison, pupils may read Scott’s " Ivanhoe,” Shake¬ 
speare’s "Twelfth Night,” "As You Like It,” and "Much Ado 
About Nothing.” 

The Setting. The excellence of "The Merchant of Venice” 
in other respects is well maintained in the richness and beauty 
of its setting. Pupils should point out the touches by which 
Shakespeare suggests the greatness of Venice when that city 
was mistress of the commercial world; those by which he 
makes us feel the soft charm of the Italian climate. For 
descriptions of costume and scenery, see Furness’s " New 
Variorum Edition,” pages 387-394. 

These subjects may be used for short talks or themes: 

1. What do you know, from the play, of the charm, the history, 
and the government of Venice? 

2. Does this accord with the facts of geography and history ? 

3. Describe Belmont, and Portia’s dwelling. 

The Story and the Incidents. Commentators have assumed 
as the theme of this play such varied ideas as friendship, justice, 
avarice, property rights, revenge. One should not carry such 
inquiries too far. Perhaps Shakespeare had no definite moral 
theme, and this divided opinion may be only a tribute to the 
artistic proportion in the character development of the drama. 
(See Introduction, pp. 54-56.) The fact that "The Merchant 
of Venice” is classed among the comedies would tend to sup¬ 
port this opinion. It is not a pure comedy, however, for the 
suspense of the bond story overshadows the brighter scenes of 
four acts of the play. There is something tragic in the figure 
of Shylock. Perhaps in his case Shakespeare intended to show 
that revenge may overreach itself, as ambition does in the case 


THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 


179 


of " Macbeth.” Note that Shylock’s overthrow comes by the 
letter of the law, on which he has taken his stand against 
Antonio. (See the section on Nemesis in Shakespeare in 
Moulton’s "Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist,” pp. 43-51.) 

The plot of "The Merchant of Venice ” is one of the best in 
Shakespeare’s plays. Its type is that of parallel actions, namely 
the bond and the casket stories, connected by the link action 
of the underplots, namely the Jessica and the ring stories. 
Compare the plot structure of Dickens’s "Tale of Two Cities.” 
Note that the "complicating” or "exciting force ” of the "rising 
action ” or "entanglement” becomes the "resolving force” that 
works out the "entanglement” to a happy solution; that is, 
Portia is the cause of the making of the bond, and at the same 
time the means of freeing Antonio. Note also that the climax of 
the casket story, Bassanio’s choice, is the turning point of the play, 
and that this scene (Act III, scene ii) is the mechanical center 
of the play as well as the dramatic center, and consequently is 
finely elaborated. Compare it with the scenes in which the other 
suitors make their choice, with the banquet scene of "Macbeth ” 
and with the Forum scene of "Julius Caesar.” In this scene 
every one of the four stories is brought in, "dovetailed,” to use 
Moulton’s expression. (See Moulton’s " Shakespeare as a Dra¬ 
matic Artist,” pp. 58-89.) For general method of analysis by 
act and scene, see The Story and the Incidents in " Macbeth,” 
and "Julius Caesar.” Special attention should be given to the 
structure of Act II, in which the rapid action of the five scenes 
developing the Jessica story creates the illusion of extended 
passage of time necessary for the three months before the bond 
expires. This illusion is strengthened by having only one brief 
scene from the bond story in all the act. "The Merchant of 
Venice” is sometimes played without the fifth act. Is this act 
a dramatic blunder on Shakespeare’s part ? (See Ulrici’s " Shake¬ 
speare’s Dramatic Art,” p. 27.) Let pupils trace the connection 
between the inscriptions on the caskets and their contents. 
Let them follow the growing misfortunes of Antonio from the 
first hint of loss to the final accumulation of disasters. 


180 THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 

The following topics may be discussed: 

1. Did Shylock start the rumors of Antonio’s losses? (See Intro¬ 
duction, p. 75.) 

2. Did Portia save Antonio’s life by quibbling ? (See " Law in the 
trial scene,” Furness’s " New Variorum Edition,” pp. 403-420.) 

The Characters. What are the good traits of Antonio ? of 
Bassanio ? Can Antonio’s treatment of Shylock be excused ? 
(See p. 60.) Does Bassanio seem worthy of Portia? (See 
p. 69.) For what qualities does Mrs. Jameson class Portia 
among Shakespeare’s women of intellect? How does Portia 
compare in this respect with other women in the same group ? 
Prove from the text that she is not wanting in emotional quali¬ 
ties. What is the strongest actuating motive in Shylock’s plot 
against Antonio? (See pp. 74-76.) Do you feel that Shake¬ 
speare intended that you should sympathize with Shylock ? 
(See p. 76.) Cite examples from other plays of Shakespeare 
of strong friendship between two men. What relation do the 
characters of Gratiano and Nerissa bear to those of Bassanio 
and Portia respectively ? What influence upon our feeling 
towards Shylock is produced by Jessica ? What kind of temper¬ 
ament has Lorenzo ? Of what other Shakespearean lover does 
he remind you? (Compare "Twelfth Night.”) What is the 
value of the character of Launcelot Gobbo to the play ? (See 
pp. 62-63 5 Ulrici’s " Shakespeare’s Dramatic Art,” Vol. II, 
pp. 127-128.) Bring out the oriental traits in the Prince of 
Morocco; the Spanish traits in the Prince of Aragon. 

The following subjects are suitable for short themes or 
discussions: 

1. Shylock and Isaac of York. (Compare "Ivanhoe,” and see 
"Jews in England,” Furness’s "New Variorum Edition,” pp. 395- 
3990 

2. Changes in the acting of the part of Shylock. (See Brandes’ 
"William Shakespeare,” p. 164; Ulrici’s "Shakespeare’s Dramatic 
Art,” Vol. II, p. 126; the Appendix to Furness’s " New Variorum 
Edition.”) 

3. Was Bassanio a fortune hunter? 


THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 


8l 


4. Antonio and Bassanio. (Compare David and Jonathan.) 

5. Did Portia give Bassanio a hint? (See Furness’s ** New Vari¬ 
orum Edition,” pp. 141-142.) 

6. Is Jessica an unworthy character? 

Construction and Style. Reference has already been made to 
the device by which Shakespeare gives the impression that time 
is passing. This is only one of many evidences of dramatic 
skill in this wonderful drama. Note, for instance, how effectively 
the light and dark threads of the plot are interwoven. In Act I 
the two scenes which initiate the action of the bond story are 
separated by the merry dialogue between Portia and Nerissa 
concerning the former’s suitors. Fast upon the heels of Bas- 
sanio’s rapture in the turning point comes the letter announcing 
the disasters of Antonio. Just before the long suspense of the 
trial scene is the bright scene of merry nonsense in Portia’s 
garden ; and after the trial scene, lest the play leave too dark an 
impression, is the lovely fifth act overflowing with poetry and 
moonlight. Why does Shakespeare use prose in Act I, scene ii; 
Act II, scene ii; and Act III, scenes i, v ? (See Construction 
and Style in the Study of " Macbeth.”) Numerous passages in 
"The Merchant of Venice” offer excellent opportunities for 
paraphrases; for example, Gratiano’s speech, pages 84-85 ; 
Bassanio’s, pages 87—88 ; Portia’s, page 89, lines 11-18 ; Bas¬ 
sanio’s, pages 112-113 ; Gratiano’s, page 113 ; the soliloquy of 
Morocco, pages 122-123 ; of Aragon, pages 128-129 ; Portia’s 
speeches, pages 137-140; Bassanio’s, pages 141-144, Lorenzo’s, 
pages 184-186. In some of these passages Shakespeare reaches 
heights of poetic inspiration seldom equaled. These should be 
learned and recited before the class, their effect noted, and then 
analyzed. For instance, the line 

How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! 

produces an instantaneous effect. Analyzing it, we note the 
smoothness of the rhythm, the alliteration and assonance in the 
words " sweet ” and " sleeps,” and, above all, the force of the 
metaphor in the word " sleeps.” Have pupils substitute such 


182 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


a word as "lies” or "shines” to see how evident is the loss 
in poetic effect. 

Explain "want-wit” (p. 80, line 3); "Nestor” (p. 82, line 
21); "prodigal” (p. 86, line 7, and p. 117, line 6); "prest” 
(p. 87, line 19); "Jasons” (p. 88, line 10); "Sibylla” (p. 93, 
line 10); "sensible” (p. 127, line 21); "approve” (p. 141, 
line 13); "confound” (p. 150, line 2); "commodity” (p. 153, 
line 10); "patines” (p. 185, line 4); "Orpheus” (p. 186, 
line 9); "Endymion” (p. 188, line 3). Add to this list words 
and expressions which it is important to remember because 
Shakespeare uses them frequently in a sense not modem. 
Note particularly those which are misleading because their 
meaning seems to be clear. Point out the most poetic passages 
in each act; the most beautiful lines. 

The following are good topics for discussion: 

1. Is the play rightly named? (See p. 58.) 

2. The sources of the plot. (See pp. 48-54; also the reproduc¬ 
tions in Furness’s "New Variorum Edition.’’) 

3. Shakespeare’s manipulation of his raw materials. (See Intro¬ 
duction, pp. 48-54; also Moulton’s "Shakespeare as a Dramatic 
Artist,’’ pp. 43-89.) 

Shakespeare’s Life and Work. What circumstances probably 
influenced Shakespeare to take up dramatic work ? (See pp. 
38-39; also references under Life and Work in the Study of 
" Macbeth.”) Enumerate some of the contemporary notices of 
Shakespeare given on pages 39-40, 44-45. To what period 
of Shakespeare’s life does "The Merchant of Venice” be¬ 
long ? (See pp. 47-48 ; also references under Life and Work 
in the Study of "Macbeth.”) 

The following topics may be worth discussing: 

1. Did Shakespeare visit Italy? (See Brandes’ "William Shake¬ 
speare,’’pp. 113-118.) 

2. Shakespeare’s connection with the theater. (See pp. 39-41, 
43 - 44 -) 

3. Shakespeare’s relation to music. (See Brandes’ "William 
Shakespeare," pp. 168-169.) 


A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’S DREAM 


183 


A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’S DREAM 

Introduction. For the general method of studying Shakespeare 
see Introduction to the Study of " Macbeth.” "A Midsummer 
Night’s Dream ” is unique among the dramas of Shakespeare. 
We cannot apply to it the usual laws of dramatic criticism. (See 
Introduction, pp. 21-22.) It is throughout a drama of enchant¬ 
ment and dreamland, as the title suggests.. (See Introduction, 
PP- 7—9; also the Preface to Furness’s "New Variorum Edi¬ 
tion.”) It is hoped, therefore, that the pupils will enjoy it as 
they-enjoyed the fairy tales of their childhood, taking the moon¬ 
lit fairy world of the forest near Athens as they took the en¬ 
chanted forest of "The Sleeping Beauty,” without questioning 
the strange and fantastic events too closely. 

The class may well act the scenes of the "Pyramus and 
Thisbe ” interlude, and, if time permits, the comic scenes of the 
bewilderment caused by the love enchantment should be read 
aloud. 

Several of the most exquisite specimens of Shakespeare’s 
poetic fancy occur in this play, particularly in the fairy speeches. 
Pupils should memorize some of these for oral recitation. 

Shakespeare’s " Tempest ” offers an interesting comparison to 
"A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” as do Drayton’s "Nymphidia” 
and Milton’s "L’Allegro” (lines 100-117). 

The Setting. This is the one play of Shakespeare’s in which 
the paramount interest seems to be in the setting rather than 
in the events or the characters. Not only is the spirit of it that 
of a dream, but of a dream dominated by the tricksy sprites of 
elf land. "The Tempest” is also a drama of enchantment, but 
there the enchanted island is ruled over by a wise and beneficent 
mortal, and the events which take place have their rise in human 
passions. "As You Like It ” breathes of the freedom of forest 
life, but much is natural and human within the bounds of the 
Forest of Arden. The teacher may compare " A Midsummer 
Night’s Dream ” with other familiar representations of the 
supernatural, as the fairy world of Grimm’s " Fairy Tales ”; of 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


184 

Celtic literature, as seen, for example, in the King Arthur cycle; 
of Greek mythology as represented, for instance, in Haw¬ 
thorne’s " Wonder-Book ”; or of the " Arabian Nights.” 

The Story and the Incidents. The fantastic setting and the 
incongruous character groups of " A Midsummer Night’s Dream ” 
preclude any consistent dramatic development. As in that other 
forest drama, "As You Like It,” the plot seems to consist of some 
central incidents around which courses an enveloping tracery of 
action. The scenes of Act I are laid in Athens and give us the 
"exciting forces” of the marriage of Theseus and Hippolyta 
and of the crossed loves of Lysander and Hermia, Demetrius 
and Helena. But Act III carries us into the forest, and there 
all is bewitched ; the laws that govern human life are no longer 
in force. (See Introduction, pp. 8,17-18.) The nearest approach 
to a climax and turning point is the partial undoing of the love 
charm, which sets right all the lovers’ quarrels, including that of 
Oberon and Titania. But close analysis of this exquisite fantasy 
is unprofitable. Our delight in the play is not in its structure or 
development of plot; it is in the succession of charming scenes 
and the total impression of beauty. It is interesting to note the 
daring of Shakespeare’s genius in bringing into dramatic con¬ 
trast such delicate creations as Titania and her fairy servitors, 
and such clumsy buffoons as Bottom and his associates. In 
what other plays has Shakespeare introduced notable contrasts 
of poetical episodes with comic interludes ? (Compare " Twelfth 
Night” and "The Tempest.”) Act IV, scene ii, and Act V 
round out the action by bringing us back to Athens and the 
world of mortals; but it is only a half-real world, where we 
are only half awake, — where, indeed, we may sleepily wonder 
whether we are not dreaming still, whether all life is not a 
dream. 

An interesting class discussion may be based on the following 
question: Does Shakespeare intend the " Pyramus and Thisbe ” 
interlude as a parody on the actors and the "greenroom” 
quarrels of the contemporary theatrical world? (See Intro¬ 
duction, p. 20.) 


A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’S DREAM 


l »5 


The Characters. The human characters are not so clearly 
delineated in this play as in other plays of Shakespeare ? Why ? 
(See Introduction, pp. 15-20.) In what sense is Lamb’s saying 
true that Shakespeare "invented the fairies”? (See Introduc¬ 
tion, p. 7.) Are Theseus and Hippolyta classic conceptions? 
(See Introduction, p. 18.) Did Shakespeare need to go to the 
greenroom of the Elizabethan theater to find the original sug¬ 
gestion for Bottom’s character ? Do you know people like him ? 

The following subjects are suitable for short themes or 
discussions: 

1. The nature of Shakespeare’s fairies. (See Introduction, pp. 9- 
12; also Dyer’s "Folk-lore of Shakespeare,’’ and notes on Dramatis 
Personae, Furness’s "New Variorum Edition.”) 

2. A comparison of Puck and Ariel. (Read their parts in "A 
Midsummer Night’s Dream ” and "The Tempest ” respectively, and 
see Introduction, p. 9.) 

Construction and Style. Dowden aptly describes the peculiar 
charm of "A Midsummer Night’s Dream ” when he says in his 
" Shakspere, His Mind and Art ” (p. 321) : "In 'A Midsummer 
Night’s Dream ’ Shakspere’s humor has enriched itself by coa¬ 
lescing with the fancy. The comic is a mingled web shot through 
with the beautiful.” The union of Bottom and Titania he 
declares to be symbolic. Point out other illustrations of this min¬ 
gling of the comic and the beautiful in the play. (See Introduc¬ 
tion, pp. 16-18.) Study the metrical forms of the fairy speeches 
and compare with similar passages in "The Tempest,” also with 
the speeches of the witches in "Macbeth.” Explain the use of 
the prose passages in the play. (See Construction and Style 
in the Study of "Macbeth.”) Compare the dainty fancifulness 
of Titania with Mercutio’s description of Queen Mab in " Romeo 
and Juliet” (Act I, scene iv). Note the fitness of the names 
throughout the play. Compare with the names in Drayton’s 
"Nymphidia.” The duration of the action has puzzled many 
critics. (See Preface to Furness’s "New Variorum Edition”; 
also pp. 297-298 of the same.) Why is not this apparent dis¬ 
crepancy in the duration of the action a drawback to the play ? 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


186 

Explain p. 39, line 4; "lode-stars” (p. 31, line 16); "favour” 
(p. 32, line 2); "square” (p. 40, line 14); "to hear” (p. 46, 
line 18); "wood” (p. 48, line 8) ; "wit” (p. 63, line 1); "curst” 
(p. 77, line 14); "sort” (p. 79, line 17); "admirable” (p. 97, line 
8); " hight ” (p. 102, line 5). Add to this list words and expres¬ 
sions which it is important to remember because Shakespeare 
uses them frequently in a sense not modem. Note particularly, 
those which are misleading because their meaning seems to be 
clear. Point out the most poetic passages in each act; the most 
beautiful lines. 

The following topic may be subdivided among members of 
the class for discussion: Shakespeare’s superior handling of the 
fairy world as compared with that of his predecessors who wrote 
of fairies. (See sources of the plot in Furness’s "New Vari¬ 
orum Edition,” pp. 268-296.) Another topic of interest to 
members of the class who care for music is Mendelssohn’s 
setting of "A Midsummer Night’s Dream.” 

Shakespeare’s Life and Work. To what period of Shake¬ 
speare’s life does "A Midsummer Night’s Dream ” belong ? 
(See Life and Work in the Study of "Macbeth.”) Note the 
coincidence of which Hudson speaks on pages 4, 5. What do 
you think of the supposed personal allusions in the play ? (See 
Introduction, pp. 13-15 ; also Furness’s "New Variorum Edi- 
ti°n,” pp. 75-91.) 


COMUS 

Introduction. Before reading the poem the pupil may learn 
the occasion for writing it from the notes, page 83. He should 
then read the text and tell the story in his own words. After 
that, the teacher may call attention to the simplest and most 
appreciative things said by the critics quoted in the Introduction. 
Unfavorable criticisms should be lightly passed over at first, or 
ignored altogether, for the very young pupil will usually attach 
to them more importance than they deserve or perhaps were 
intended to have, and will therefore fail to be impressed by the 


COMUS 187 

greatness of the poem. The inspiration of the poet’s genius, 
moral uprightness, and purity should not be lost. 

The Introduction, pages xxix, xxx, states the distinction be¬ 
tween the masque and the regular drama. Directions are given 
on page 85 for getting information about the English masque 
in general. As possibly containing hints that Milton used, the 
pupil who has access to them may read Ben Jonson’s masque, 
" Pleasure reconciled to Virtue ” and John Fletcher’s semi- 
dramatic poem, " The Faithful Shepherdess.” 

The Setting. The scene of the action is very definitely fixed 
in Haywood Forest, near Ludlow Castle. (See lines 27-39; 
Notes, p. 85.) Before what distinguished company and by 
what actors was the play first presented? What compliments 
to the auditors are introduced ? How does the scene, under 
the treatment of Milton, expand beyond a narrow locality ? (See 
p. xxxvii.) How do the interests expand beyond the temporary 
concern of a few persons? (See lines 1-14, 1019-1023.) It 
seems scarcely possible for Milton to confine himself within 
narrow limits of space and time. The atmosphere is classic 
rather than English. (Find evidence of this.) 

The Story and the Incidents. From Professor Dowden 
(p. xxxvii) we derive as the subject The Security of Virtue. (Com¬ 
pare Masson’s statement, p. 99.) How is this security proved ? 
What are its sources ? Of what usual safeguards is Virtue here 
deprived? (See lines 188-192, 195-197.) What safeguards 
remain? (See lines 420, 421, 453, 454, and elsewhere.) Point 
out the passages where the Lady is assailed (1) by Flattery, 
(2) by Falsehood, (3) by Sorcery. How is she set free ? (See 
lines 814-826.) Compare the incantation of Comus with that 
of the witches in Shakespeare’s "Macbeth.” How is the talk 
of the two Brothers related to the general plan ? What mistake 
do they make when bursting into Comus’s palace ? Compare the 
transformations wrought by Circe (Homer’s Odyssey, Book X) 
with those wrought by Comus (lines 68-77). What do these 
transformations signify? What is the "divine Philosophy” that 
the younger Brother finds so charming? (See lines 476-480.) 


i88 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Is it the same that the fallen spirits discuss in the place of 
punishment? (See "Paradise Lost,” Book II, lines 555-569.) 
Why does the Lady in her song appeal to Echo ? Note the 
effect of the Echo song upon two very different natures. (See 
lines 244ft., 555ft.) Both admired it — with what difference? 
Point out evidence of Milton’s patriotism in his praise of 
England. 

The Characters. Of the six characters only three are human, 
but all are mingled in a way to make us forget their essential 
difference. The spirituality of the Lady is scarcely less positive 
than that of the goddess Sabrina, and the Brothers are as virtuous 
as the attendant Spirit himself. What differences, however, may 
be noted in respect to knowledge ? in respect to power ? Are 
the superhuman characters real or allegorical ? 

What is the origin of Sabrina? (See lines 824-842.) Asso¬ 
ciated with classical divinities (lines 868-884), is she like them ? 
Why is she chosen for her present service ? What do Comus’s 
name and his origin from Bacchus and Circe signify ? (See 
lines 46-58, and note on Comus, p. 88.) Why is he said to 
have come from Celtic and Iberian fields ? Point out the 
significance of his life in a forest (lines 520, 521); in a palace 
(stage direction after line 658). In the picture of Comus does 
Milton rebuke or commend the tendency of the age ? 

Is the attendant Spirit of the same nature as Sabrina, or is 
he an actual angel come from heaven ? (See lines 1-6.) Does 
he resemble Shakespeare’s Ariel and Puck ? (See p. 113.) How 
does he differ from them ? Does he represent the divine Provi¬ 
dence alluded to in lines 453-458 ? How is he disguised ? (See 
line 493.) 

Is there a distinct individuality in the Brothers ? (See 
p. xxxvii.) Are they older and younger in their relations to 
each other? (See p. 97.) Is the elder Brother a "prig”? 

What qualities in Lady Alice does the Echo song disclose? 
Is her fear of being alone excessive? Does it work on her 
imagination? (See lines 205-209.) What change comes over 
her as she is lured into the palace of Comus ? Is her frigidity 


COMUS 


189 


excessive? (See first note, p. 106.) Does her situation allow 
her to present the most attractive side of her character ? Does 
she disclose strength of purpose ? 

Construction and Style. What are the divisions of this masque 
that correspond to the scenes of an ordinary drama ? State in 
a single sentence the content of each division. Are the unities 
of time, place, and action observed ? State the nature of Milton’s 
originality. (See pp. xlvi, xlvii.) Note the quality of his imagi¬ 
nation (p. xlv) ; his use of mythology (p. xxxvi; p. hi). Point 
out some of the strongest lines of the poem. How do lines 
560-562 impress you? What do they mean? (See p. 104.) 
Explain line 208. Pick out some of the finest similes and 
metaphors. 

What is the meter of the body of the poem ? the metrical 
construction of the lyrical portions ? Is it regular ? Is it har¬ 
monious ? Select the lines most noteworthy for their music. 
Was Milton a musician ? 

The following may be used as subjects for themes and 
discussions : 

1. A description of Ludlow Castle. 

2. Hostility to the drama in Milton’s time. 

3. Would ** Comus ” make an effective school or college play? 

4. Does a reading of " Comus ” make Milton’s personality more 
attractive to you ? 

Milton’s Life and Work. See the Study of "Lycidas” in 
Group V. 


GROUP IV 


NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE PROSE 

EXCLUSIVE OF THE NOVEL 

THE PILGRIM’S PROGRESS 

Introduction. It is desirable that the student should be taught 
not only the significance of Bunyan’s great work by itself, but 
also its related significance to other famous allegories. To this end 
two other very great allegories may be read in part, particularly 
that portion of the "Faerie Queene” (Book I, Canto IX) which 
treats of suicide, and that section of "The Divina Commedia” 
which shows Dante’s conception of Paradise. Addison’s "Vision 
of Mirza” and "Burden of Mankind” in the Spectator, the epi¬ 
sode of Sin and Death in Milton’s "Paradise Lost” (Book X), 
the Book of Revelation in the New Testament, as well as Christ’s 
parables, and that Anglo-Norman jewel, "The Pearl,” may also 
be read, and the fifteenth-century Morality play, " Everyman,” 
may be studied for its picture of man struggling with Death. 

In contrast with this religious allegory other allegories of a 
different type may be examined: Goethe’s " Faust,” Chaucer’s 
version of " The Romance of the Rose,” Swift’s " Gulliver’s 
Travels,” Balzac’s " The Wild Ass’s Skin,” Chamisso’s " Peter 
Schlemihl,” certain of Hawthorne’s "Twice-Told Tales,” his 
" Celestial Railroad ” in " Mosses from an Old Manse,” his 
"Scarlet Letter,” and Richter’s "Invisible Lodge.” But the 
most important allegory to consider is Langland’s " Piers Plow¬ 
man.” It breathes the same stern appeal to conscience, shows 
the same journey through life to the Celestial City, and unspar¬ 
ingly denounces the evils of this life. 

190 


THE PILGRIM’S PROGRESS 


19 


Inquiry might profitably be made into the England of Bun¬ 
yan’s time,— the reign of Charles I, the Protectorate, and the 
Restoration. Is Bunyan’s work truthful to the times ? 

The Setting. Compare the localities where the action takes 
place with those in other allegories, as the " savage wood,” the 
Mount of Purgatory, and the Earthly Paradise in Dante, the 
den of Error, and Acrasia’s bower in the " Faerie Queene.” 
Compare also " Piers Plowman,” w The Romance of the Rose,” 
and other allegories in this particular. Which seems the more 
homely and familiar in its description of places ? which the 
more precise ? 

Write descriptive paragraphs on the following topics: 

1. The House of the Interpreter (p. 21). 

2. The Delectable Mountains (p. 41). 

4. Vanity Fair (pp. 73—75). 

4. Doubting Castle (pp. 93-95). 

5. The Country of Beulah (p. 112). 

JS. The Celestial City (pp. 116-119). , 

The Argument and the Incidents. Whether this very widely 
read book now makes its chief appeal to the religious sense or 
to the literary sense, the incidents grip one with dramatic force. 
There is nothing mystical about it; the writer enters into no 
theological discussion. It is a plain, practical exposition of Chris¬ 
tian’s first utterance, "What shall I do to be saved?” 

Profitable exercises and discussions may be based on the 
following: 

Give an account of Christian and Pliable in the Slough of Despond; 
of Christian on the Hill Difficulty; of Christian in the Palace Beau¬ 
tiful. Tell Faithful’s story in the first person. ^Describe Christian’s 
fight with Apollyon, his journey through the Valley of the Shadow of 
Death, through Vanity Fair, his fight with Giant Despair, his experi¬ 
ence in the Country of Beulah and dt the Celestial City. 

'/What is Bunyan’s idea of heaven ? Can you justify Christian’s 
leaving his family ?- Summarize the philosophy of the following: Mr. 
Worldly Wiseman, the Interpreter, Apollyon, Talkative, Hopeful, 
Giant Despair. What is the attitude toward life of Obstinate, Legal¬ 
ity, Law, Passion, Simple, Watchful, Pride, Arrogancy, Superstition, . 


192 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Saveall, Flatterer, etc.? Why should Goodwill be called "grave”? 
(See p. 17.) What was Christian’s burden, and why did he have to 
carry it to a certain point? (See p. 29.) Is there any meaning in the 
helpless giant at the cave? (See p. 52.) Why did Christian stumble? 
(See p. 53.) What are the modern Shames? (See p. 59.)'y^Vhat is 
the most obvious connection of Vanity Fair with modern life? (See 
p. 72.) *fohy was the outer gate of Doubting Castle the most diffi¬ 
cult to open with Christian’s key Promise? (See p. 98.) Describe 
Littlefaith’s adventure. (See p. 105.) Why did Ignorance hobble? 
(See p. 112.) Why did the depth of the river vary? (See p. 114.) 

Some of these points also may be discussed: 

Is there.any humor in the book ? any plot ? Should the test of the 
lions havelbeen more severe? How is Christian told of affairs at 
home? How did Faithful avoid a combat with Apollyon ? Could the 
episode with Talkative have been omitted? Why should Faithful 
suffer martyrdom? What are the specific points Bunyan wants to 
teach ? Do you think he might have accomplished his purpose better 
had he written fiction or drama? How far did his knowledge of 
human nature extend? 

The Characters. There are more types of people represented 
in "Pilgrim’s Progress ” than one might suppose. Teacher and 
pupils, working together, may make a list of them, grouping 
them according to related traits. The allegorical significance of 
certain of the characters has been discussed above; in addition, 
write or give orally character sketches of the following: Sloth, 
Formalist, Discretion, Envy, the Evangelist, Watchful, Money- 
love, Diffidence, the Shining One. Name the friends of Dis¬ 
content. Why should they be his friends ? Name the shepherds, 
and tell why they should be called so. (See p. 100.) What sort 
of men were the seven friends of Byends ? Why should Mr. 
Worldly Wiseman dwell in the town of Carnal Policy ? Formalist 
and Hypocrisy in the land of Vainglory ? Adam the First in the 
town of Deceit ? Mr. Byends in Fairspeech ; and Littlefaith in 
the town of Sincere ? Describe the trial of Faithful and Chris¬ 
tian ; explain its meaning, and describe the Judge and Jury. 

Construction and Style. One of the remarkable merits of the 
book is the ingenious way in which the phraseology of the Bible 


THE PILGRIM’S PROGRESS 


193 


is woven into the dialogue in the references to places and con¬ 
ditions. (See pp. 3-6, 10, 15, 17-20, 24, 27, 31, 37, 40, etc.) 
Attention should also be drawn to the worldly wise proverbs, and 
to the various stages of the allegory, of which the most signifi¬ 
cant traits are found in the following: the shining light (p. 3), 
the effort to fill the Slough of Despond (p. 8), the empty house 
(p. 12), the overhanging hill (pp. 12-13), the picture in the 
house of the Interpreter (p. 21), the .sweeping of the parlor 
(p. 22), the waterman looking one way and rowing another 
(p. 83), Religion going in silver slippers (p. 83), etc. Trace back 
as many Biblical allusions as you can, and note their metaphor¬ 
ical application. Bunyan had read and re-read the Bible until it 
was a part of his mental and spiritual life. His language is, 
therefore, simple, strong, and beautiful. He had no part in the 
fine writing of die Restoration, which was based on French 
models. He had! a message for common men, and he chose a 
common speech.* He is dramatic, pictorial; but he gets his re¬ 
sults not by literary trick, but by simplicity. The following phrases 
suggest these qualities: "greatly distressed in his mind,” "ad¬ 
dress himself to go back,” "knocked over and over,” "fashion 
of it,” "exceeding black,” "in most fearful wise,” "a goad in 
thy sides to prick thee forward,” "loosed from off,” "entered 
with them into discourse,” " betook themselves to rest,” " wrought 
righteousness,” "waxed valiant.” Let the pupili-note other ex¬ 
amples. Are there any grammatical errors to be found ? Are 
there any digressions in the structure of the book ? Observe 
how Bunyan keeps before the reader the dream point of view. 

Bunyan’s Life and Work. The standard life of Bunyan is 
Dr. John Brown’s. Read the life of Bunyan carefully (pp. v-vii), 
and the chapter on Bunyan in Long’s "English Literature” 
(pp. 219-227). See also Macaulay’s "History of England,” 
and Froude’s "Life of Bunyan” in the English Men of Let¬ 
ters Series, vflow did Bunyan’s birth, parentage, and early sur¬ 
roundings affect his life ? What are the strong and the weak 
points in his character ? Discuss the causes of his imprisonment; 
his life in prison ; his after work; his renown. Name his other 


194 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


works. Did any other book besides the Bible affect the style 
of " Pilgrim’s Progress ” ? How do you reconcile his literary 
abilities with his occupation and environment ? What is his 
place in literature and in history? 

THE SIR ROGER DE COVERLEY PAPERS 

Introduction. The "Sir Roger de Coverley Papers ” are 
essays. An essay may be a biographical paper (like Macaulay’s 
"Life of Johnson”), a humorous sketch (like Lamb’s "Disser¬ 
tation upon Roast Pig”), a description of nature, a bit of literary 
criticism, — indeed, it may be almost any prose piece except a 
story or an address. A good essay has a plan, but not a plot. 
Although the series of essays relating to Sir Roger lacks one of 
the elements of the novel, — the plot, — it possesses another ele¬ 
ment of great importance, — careful portrayal of character. It 
is probably true that by their masterly delineation of character 
in prose the authors of these papers hastened the coming of 
the English novel of manners, which appeared not many years 
later in the works of Richardson, Fielding, and Smollett. 

There are several reasons why young people should read 
these essays from the Spectator. Rightly used, the Papers will 
help them in their theme work. Franklin, for example, was 
accustomed to put the substance of Addison’s essays into the 
best English at his command, in order, by seeing how far he 
fell short, to learn to write. Addison, one of the masters of 
English style, is a model of clearness, simplicity, and grace. 
But he desired above all, as Taine says, to "make morality 
fashionable.” Themselves strong Whigs, the authors chose as 
their chief character Sir Roger, a Tory of the Tories, and made 
him so attractive that the most prejudiced Whig was compelled 
to love him. (See Introduction, Parts I, II, IV, VI, VII.) Then, 
too, they take us out of our world into the curious, old-fashioned 
England of the early eighteenth century. (See Introduction, 
notes on manners and customs, and list on p. xxxvi, under Social 
Life and Kindred Topics.) 


THE SIR ROGER DE COVERLEY PAPERS 195 


The Setting. What is there about Sir Roger’s life in the 
country that strikes you as strange — as unlike anything you 
have seen in America ? Do you note a more marked division 
between different classes of people in Addison’s world than in 
the society with which you are acquainted ? Does the London 
of Addison’s day seem to you to have been a cosmopolitan 
city ? How did it differ from a modern American city ? 

Short themes may be written on such subjects as the following: 

1. Sir Roger’s welcome home. 

2. A Sunday at Coverley Hall. 

3. At a London theater with the old squire. 

The Incidents. Should one look for incidents in a series of 
essays portraying a character? What is the purpose of the 
authors in introducing the few trifling incidents which we find, 
such as the happy escape of the hare, in the paper on the hunt; 
Sir Roger’s encounter with the gypsy, and his experience at the 
play ? Is there any point in the series of essays where the 
reader wonders how things are coming out? Is there a short 
story among the Papers ? 

The following subjects may be used for themes: 

1. Sir Roger’s love affair with the widow. 

2. A short story of which Sir Roger is the hero. 

3. A story based on the "Sir Roger de Coverley Papers,” which 
shall illustrate the difference between a literary work with a plot and 
one without. 

4. The life of Sir Roger de Coverley, based on hints gleaned 
from the essays. 

The Characters. Sir Roger is called " humorous.” Does this 
mean that he has a keen sense of humor ? Mention some char¬ 
acter in fiction who has a sense of humor. Notice the characters 
in the essays. Do you find a large variety? What was the 
object of the authors in putting into Sir Roger’s clyb such a 
miscellaneous set of men ? Is the widow a clearly drawn char¬ 
acter? Through whose eyes do we see her? What qualities 
must the Spectator have had ? Would it have been easy for 
Will Wimble to lead a useful life had he cared to do so ? 


196 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


The following subjects are suitable for short themes or 
discussions: 

1. The choice of characters in the "De Coverley Papers” as a 
means of teaching charity and consideration. 

2. The eccentricities of the old squire. 

3. Sir Roger’s relations with his tenants, his servants, and his 
friends. 

4. An eighteenth-century beau (Will Honeycomb). 

Construction and Style. Why did the authors make the 
Spectator tell about the old squire ? How does the introduction 
of the Spectator, the friend of Sir Roger, affect the style of the 
essays ? Compare Addison’s humor with Mark Twain’s. What 
is the essential difference between the two ? Compare these 
essays with Macaulay’s " Essay on Addison ” or with Carlyle’s 
"Essay on Burns.” What differences in subject and manner 
do you note between Addison and Bacon ? between Addison 
and Emerson or Stevenson ? In which is the structure more 
evident ? Are the authors of the " De Coverley Papers ” careful 
in regard to structure; in other words, is there a beginning, 
middle, and end in each essay ? Does each paragraph relate to 
one division of the general subject? In what respects is the 
style slightly antiquated ? 

The following subjects may be discussed: 

1. Is Addison a great humorist? 

2. Which of the papers, if any, are free from the spirit of 
humor? 

3. The word "humor ” in its various uses, past and present. (See 
note, p. 147.) 

Life and Work of Addison and Steele. (See Introduction, and 
lists on pp. xxxvi, xxxvii.) Addison and Steele became promi¬ 
nent in political life because they could write forcibly on political 
questions. Could they have gained distinction in this way half 
a century before ? How was the career of a man like Addison 
affected by the freedom of the press ? by the fact that speeches 
made in parliament were not printed and sent broadcast over 
the land as now ? by the fact that the two great parties — the 


THE SKETCH BOOK 


197 


Whigs and the Tories — were pretty evenly matched, and that 
each was seeking able writers of political pamphlets? What 
traits in Addison’s character caused him to be successful where 
Swift, perhaps a greater man, was unsuccessful ? Why are 
Addison and Steele known chiefly through the " Sir Roger de 
Coverley Papers ”? Contrast Addison with Pope, as a man and 
as a writer. 


THE SKETCH BOOK 

Introduction. By calling his volume " The Sketch Book ” 
Irving left himself free to put together essays and short stories, 
records of travel, and pictures of places. While " Rip Van 
Winkle ” is by far the most popular of the so-called " sketches,” 
the volume as a whole still keeps its hold upon the reading 
public. This is because of Irving’s charm as a writer, because 
of his never-failing humor and his kindliness of spirit. As an 
author his aim was to please, and at the same time to broaden 
the horizon of his American readers by putting them in touch 
with the life of other lands, past and present. (See Introduction, 
pp. xvi-xviii.) He was one of the pioneers in the art of the 
short story, but so much good work has since been done and is 
still being done in that field that it is not easy to appreciate 
fully his unique position in his own day. (See notes on " Rip 
Van Winkle,” p. 448 ; on " The Spectre Bridegroom,” p. 466 ; 
on "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” p. 487.) 

The Setting. The country of the Hudson, with its Dutch 
traditions, furnishes the background for " Rip Van Winkle ” and 
" The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” What lack might an Ameri¬ 
can author feel when trying to create a romantic setting for a 
story ? What romantic element is there in Cooper’s novels ? in 
Hawthorne’s ? What advantage has an author living in an old 
country, in the matter of romance, over one living in a newly 
settled region ? Why did Scott go back to the Middle Ages in 
many of his novels ? Should every writer try to find the ideal in 
what is nearest to him ? Would it have been better had Irving 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


198 

kept to American subjects exclusively, or did he help his 
countrymen by taking them with him to England (as he did in 
many of his sketches), and later to Spain ? Is Irving sympathetic 
in his treatment of English subjects ? 

The following subjects may be used for short themes: 

1. In the Kaatskills with Irving. 

2. Irving’s " Westminster Abbey” as a work of art. 

3. Delights of an English Christmas. 

4. A little corner of Old London (Little Britain). 

The Argument and the Incidents. It is well to examine the 
plot of each of the three best known stories in "The Sketch 
Book ”, —" Rip Van Winkle,” " The Spectre Bridegroom,” and 
" The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” In a short story the plot is 
usually simple, the characters are few, and the story goes on 
free from underplots. There is little opportunity for develop¬ 
ment of character, or for a study of the influence of one person 
upon another. There is, however, room for striking delineations 
of character, for the study of life at critical moments, and for 
remarkable artistic effects. 

Themes may be written on such subjects as the following: 

1. Irving’s best plot. 

2. Why "Rip Van Winkle” is popular. 

3. Rip Van Winkle twenty years after. 

The Characters. Are Irving’s characters real ? In the matter 
of reality how do they compare with Sir Roger de Coverley ? 
Why is the latter a more carefully finished creation ? Is there 
something more universal, more broadly human, in the drunken 
Rip than in the country squire ? Is Ichabod Crane drawn with 
a kindly touch ? Notice the contrast between the author’s atti¬ 
tude toward the characters in " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow ” 
and his attitude in those touching stories, " The Wife,” " The 
Broken Heart,” and " The Widow and her Son.” Do the 
people in " The Spectre Bridegroom ” strike one as real human 
beings ? Notice the variety in these six stories. 


THE SKETCH BOOK 


199 


Write short themes on such subjects as the following: 

1. A Rip Van Winkle in modern life. 

2. Rip’s wife. 

3. A portrait of Ichabod Crane. 

4. One of Irving’s characters compared with one of certain mod¬ 
ern writers of short stories, such as Sarah Orne Jewett, Mary E. 
Wilkins, George W. Cable, and Rudyard Kipling. 

Construction and Style. How does Irving’s style compare 
with that of the authors of the Spectator ? Notice the humor 
of each. Which is the more kindly ? Which the more subtle ? 
(For notes on the three humorous short stories in "The Sketch 
Book,” see pp. 448, 466, 487.) As an example of Irving’s pow¬ 
ers of description and of his ability to adapt his language to 
the subject in hand, read his "Westminster Abbey,” p. 199. 
Does Irving’s personality come out in his "sketches” so that 
the reader feels acquainted with him ? How does he impress 
you ? Can you see why his " Sketch Book ” still has many 
readers ? 

Such subjects as the following may well be chosen for themes 
or discussions: 

1. The most humorous character in "The Sketch Book.” 

2. Irving’s humor compared with Addison’s and Charles Lamb’s. 
(See the Study of "Essays of Elia.”) 

3. Irving’s choice of subjects in "The Sketch Book.” 

4. A study of Irving’s style in his paper on " Westminster 
Abbey,” or in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” 

Irving’s Life and Work. (See Introduction, and list on p. xxx.) 
In what respects did Irving’s career resemble Addison’s and James 
Russell Lowell’s ? Why was Irving perhaps a more important 
influence in American life than any one writer of to-day ? What 
did he give to the Americans of his own day ? On what does 
his fame chiefly rest ? Has -he, as a writer, any traits in common 
with Hawthorne? with Dickens? Is his main purpose as a 
writer to teach moral lessons or to give delight? Did he, ap¬ 
parently, find life interesting and his fellow men lovable ? Is 
his philosophy of life encouraging to his readers ? 


200 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


IRVING’S LIFE OF GOLDSMITH 

Introduction. Literary biographies like Boswell’s " Johnson,” 
Lockhart’s " Scott,” Trevelyan’s " Macaulay,” and Irving’s 
" Goldsmith ” afford pleasure when they are read, and material 
for reflection long afterward. In reading such biographies of 
course one will not race through them as one would through 
an exciting novel of romantic adventure. Nor need the reading 
be done consecutively, chapter by chapter, but here or there as 
inclination prompts on different days, or as the book happens to 
open when taken in hand. Anecdotes, side lights on the weak¬ 
ness as well as the greatness, illuminating flashes into the spirit 
of a genius,—these are the material of the celebrated biographies. 

As in Boswell’s *" Johnson ” and several other famous biogra¬ 
phies, there are in the " Goldsmith” the additional charms of a 
delightful literary style and the descriptions of a notable literary 
epoch. The reader finds, as in few other books, material for 
making the whole mid-eighteenth-century period of English 
literature vivid and real. For the way in which Goldsmith’s life 
touched the lives of his contemporaries, see the Chrono¬ 
logical Table, pages xxiv, xxv. In pages 160-188 there are 
excellent views of the way the writers of the age made their 
living and enjoyed themselves with their friends. Irving was in 
perfect sympathy with his subject, so that he wrote with true 
insight into the life and environment of Goldsmith. (See the 
Introduction, pp. xiv-xvi.) Moreover, as Irving is the pio¬ 
neer man of letters in America, it is interesting to read his 
" Goldsmith ” for new ideas about the range of his powers. 

The Argument and the Incidents. One complete reading of 
the biography will suffice. The topics and questions at the end 
of each chapter will, if used in the manner explained on page 
xxix, help to clinch the facts. 

For additional theme topics see the Standard English Classics 
edition of Macaulay’s "Life of Johnson,” the Study of this 
volume, and the Index to Boswell’s "Life of Samuel Johnson,”' 
under Goldsmith. 


ESSAYS OF ELIA 


201 


Construction and Style. After the complete reading, one 
may very profitably glance through the book again to notice 
matters of proportion and style, such as are called to the reader’s 
attention in the General Topics, pages 351-353. What do you 
conceive to be the object of biography ? (Consult the opening of 
Carlyle’s " Essay on Burns.” See also the third question, p. 204; 
the second, p. 265 ; the second, p. 329 ; the fifth, p. 339 ; the 
third, p. 350.) To what extent has Irving conformed to your 
idea of a perfect biography ? 

Irving’s Life and Work. For an entertaining and authorita¬ 
tive biography of Irving, consult Pierre M. Irving’s " Life and 
Letters of Irving,” published by Putnam, or the biography by 
Charles Dudley Warner in the American Men of Letters 
Series. What was Irving’s education ? What led him to adopt 
literature as a profession ? Name his chief writings, and tell 
which you have read and which you have enjoyed the most or 
found most helpful. What government appointments did Irving 
receive ? Where did he spend his last years ? Who were his 
chief contemporaries in England and America? (Answers to 
these questions will be found on pp. xvii-xxiii, xxvi-xxviii. 
Where are there any memorials of Irving ? What set Irving to 
writing a biography of Goldsmith ? (See pp. xii-xiii.) Was the 
work immediately popular? (See pp. xiii, xiv.) What is there 
about this book that gives it a place in the. history of literature ? 

ESSAYS OF ELIA 

Introduction. So many opportunities for guiding the student 
to a just appreciation of the "Essays of Elia” are offered in 
the Notes, with the considerable number of Review Questions 
that may be used in the daily class "quiz,” that it remains to 
make only the following detailed suggestions for teachers who 
care to use them. 

1. The first section, entitled Chief Events of Lamb’s Life 
(pp. ix-xi), should be used (1) as a point of departure for the 
detailed study of the life of Charles Lamb in the standard 


202 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


biographies (see pp. xxxv, xxxvi),or in any good history of English 
literature; (2) as suggestions for questions and class discussions; 
and (3) as topics for themes. In what part of London was he 
born and reared ? In which of the essays did he use his recol¬ 
lections of the Temple ? What famous school did he attend ? 
Which of his schoolmates were afterwards distinguished in lit¬ 
erature ? What sort of boy was he physically and temperamen¬ 
tally ? What did he inherit from his mother ? What tragic event 
occurred in his family, and what was its effect upon his after 
life ? Why did he not attend Oxford or Cambridge ? Was it due 
to a lack of ambition ? What was his method of earning a living ? 
What attempts did he make in poetry ? in journalism ? in the 
drama ? in fiction ? Trace the various steps by which he attained 
his literary eminence. Should he be classed as an amateur or 
as a professional man of letters ? 

The following are suggested as topics for short themes: 

1. The Temple. (See one of the standard encyclopedias.) 

2. Christ’s Hospital; the famous "Blue Coat” charity school 
(description, narration, and exposition). 

3. The story of Mary Lamb (narration and character sketch). 

4. Lamb as a clerk in the East India House. (Read his letters in 
Talfourd or Lucas.) 

5. The friendship of Lamb and Coleridge. 

6. Lamb and Wordsworth (character contrast). 

2. The second section (pp. xi-xxiv) is a study of Lamb’s 
Personality and Influence. What were the salient traits of 
his character? What was the effect of his misfortunes on his 
disposition ? How did he successfully combine business and 
culture ? Show how he gathered much of his literary material 
from London life. What was the influence of Charles and Mary 
on the literary life of London ? Describe their home life (see 
letters), especially their famous Wednesday-evening "parties.” 
(Read Coleridge’s autobiographical poems, and parts of the 
"Biographia Literaria”; also De Quincey’s paper on Lamb, 
and Hazlitt’s essays "On my First Acquaintance with Poets” 
and "On Persons One would wish to have seen.”) 


ESSAYS OF ELIA 


203 


These subjects may be used for themes: 

1. Lamb’s Wednesday-evening parties. (Compare with the earlier 
tavern and coffeehouse literary clubs.) 

2. Lamb, the essayist of London life. 

3. Where Lamb spent his vacations. 

4. The London Magazine . 

3. The third section (pp. xxiv-xxxiv) should be used as a 
working basis for a study of the subject matter and style of the 
essays. Why did Lamb choose the essay as his literary form ? 
Consider its congeniality to a reflective and critical temperament, 
its convenience for occasional composition, and its availability 
for publication in periodicals. For what magazine did Lamb 
write ? Compare these three types of the essay: (1) the aphoristic 
essay , which is a short collection of wise or sententious thoughts 
on some large abstract subject, exemplified by Bacon’s essays; 
(2) the expositional essay, which is a complete discussion of a 
limited theme, exemplified by Macaulay’s "Milton,” Spencer’s 
"Philosophy of Style,” Burke’s essay on "The Sublime and 
the Beautiful ”; and (3) the personal essay, which has the infor¬ 
mality of "table-talk ” or "the easy-chair,” and is written prima¬ 
rily as a vehicle of personal impressions and general entertain¬ 
ment rather than instruction, exemplified by Lamb’s " Essays of 
Elia” (except No. XXX), Thackeray’s "Roundabout Papers,” 
Addison’s Spectator papers, Hazlitt’s "Essays,” Holmes’s " Auto¬ 
crat” essays, and Stevenson’s "Virginibus Puerisque.” 

Make a classification of the "Essays of Elia” according to 
their subject matter. What light does Lamb’s choice of themes 
throw on his tastes ? Who were his models or masters in style ? 
Contrast Lamb’s modern, conversational style with the formal, 
rhetorical styles of Coleridge and De Quincey. These two types 
of prose style can be traced back to classical and Renaissance 
(or romantic) influence. (Compare, for example, the Prayer 
Book with the Bible.) In which class would you place Milton, 
Walton, Dryden, Johnson, Macaulay, Leigh Hunt, Ruskin ? To 
what extent do you think Lamb a bookish writer ? Does he show 


204 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


himself the more careful artist in structure or in style ? (See 
p. xxviii.) What is the distinctive quality of Lamb’s humor ? 
(See p. xxix.) Study several specimens of his characterization; 
for example, Mrs. Battle, Bridget Elia, Lovel, John Tupp, Samuel 
Salt, George Dyer, James Boyer, Matthew Field, and Munden. 
Has he a regular plan or a definite method in such work ? 

These subjects may be used for themes: 

1. The South-Sea House and its famous "Bubble.” (See a history 
of England.) 

2. The Bodleian Library at Oxford. 

3. Holidays at the old English schools. 

4. Lamb as a short-story writer. 

5. Lamb’s fondness for the theater and the drama. 

6. Lamb’s literary use of the sense of taste. 

7. The humor and wit of Charles Lamb. 

8. Lamb’s gallery of literary portraits. 

9. Lamb as a critic. (See essays in Wauchope’s "Selected Essays 
of Charles Lamb.”) 

Style. The following syllabus may be used as a basis for a 
detailed analysis of Lamb’s style: 

1. Quaintness, fondness for the past, the archaic and antiquarian 
note. 

2. Broad and deep sympathy, sensibility, benign humanity, demo¬ 
cratic heart, tenderness — especially for the poor, the old, the un¬ 
fortunate, for women and children. 

3. Conversational charm, graceful ease, naturalness, companion- 
ability, exquisite delicacy of touch, a "feminine” rather than a 
"masculine” style. 

4. Genial humor, sparkling wit, epigrammatic point and balance, 
arch and playful banter, teasing mystification of the reader. 

5. Intensely personal quality, unselfish egoism, a mildly melan¬ 
choly and serenely reflective mood, frank and very human confes¬ 
sions, delightful discursiveness. 

6. Critical acumen, impressionistic and frankly personal judgments 
of art, men, books, and other things. Sincere, sane, wise, and kindly 
observation of and comment on life. 


THE REVOLT OF THE TARTARS 


205 


THE REVOLT OF THE TARTARS 

Introduction. After reading the paragraph beginning at the 
bottom of page viii, the student will be in a position to read 
the essay with some appreciation of the unusual power of the 
author’s imagination. Afterward he may turn to the discussion 
of De Quincey’s original sources on pages 67-74. 

Of De Quincey’s other works, the essay on "Joan of Arc ” is 
perhaps the best to read in connection with "The Revolt of the 
Tartars,” because it, too, deals with a historical theme, and 
likewise exhibits the almost abnormal imagination of the author. 
The most interesting of his productions, however, — for young 
readers, — will be found in the "Autobiographic Sketches,” 
wherein he tells the story of his own boyhood, his school days, 
and his "introduction to the world of strife.” "The English 
Mail-Coach” and "The Vision of Sudden Death” are vivid 
though somewhat introspective narratives. De Quincey’s most 
famous work, the "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater,” 
should also be read. The remainder of his writings may best 
be left to a later time. There is no other English prose writer 
who directly resembles De Quincey; but it might be interest¬ 
ing for advanced students to compare his method and style of 
treatment with the method‘and style of Carlyle in "The French 
Revolution” and with the characteristics of Charles Lamb in 
the "Essays of Elia.” See the Study of "Essays of Elia.” 

The Setting. De Quincey does not picture the setting of his 
scene in a formal way, but the student can without difficulty 
describe the natural environment of the Kalmuck Tartars in 
their original situation and then summarize the physical charac¬ 
teristics of the country over which they pass in their long and 
terrible journey through Turkestan. (See map, p. 66.) 

The following topics are suggested for discussion, or for 
short themes: 

1. The broad dominion of the 3. Politics among the Tartars. 

Czar. 4. Preparations for the flight. 

2. A race in vassalage. 5. The country of the exodus. 


20 6 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


The Argument and the Incidents. Who was the ruler of Russia 
at the time of this revolt? (See p. 16.) What was the relation 
of the Kalmucks to the Russian government? (See pp. 4, 7, 
15, 17.) Analyze the motives of Zebek-Dorchi. Who were his 
accomplices ? Trace the development of the conspiracy. In the 
account of the intrigue, point out where the author takes advan¬ 
tage of the dramatic capabilities of his theme. What role in the 
drama is played by Oubacha ? by Kichinskoi ? by Weseloff ? 
Were all the Tartars included in the exodus ? (See p. 27.) Note 
the arrangement of the narrative by stages. What are the geo¬ 
graphical marks of these stages (see map, p. 66)? the dis¬ 
tances covered, — the duration of each ? Mention in outline the 
principal incidents of the march. How does the author heighten 
the effect of the climax ? (See p. 52.) Note the use of contrast, 
as the account of the journey closes, between the awful scene 
at Lake Tengis and the Arcadian beauties of the land assigned 
the Kalmucks by Kien Long. What is to be said of the memo¬ 
rial columns and the inscription recorded on them ? 

Write short themes on such subjects as the following: 

1. A Kalmuck caravan. 

2. The encampment. 

3. The Russian steppes. 

4. The Cossacks. 

5. The warfare in the desert. 

6. The scene at Lake Tengis. 

The Characters. Make a list of the characters. Who is the 
most conspicuous ? the most forceful ? Would you call Oubacha 
or Zebek-Dorchi the "hero” of this event? What are the per¬ 
sonal characteristics of each ? Describe the traits of the Grand 
Pristaw (pp. 22-24). Are these personages presented in a life¬ 
like way ? Write a character sketch of each. Discuss this ques¬ 
tion : Is Zebek-Dorchi patriotic or selfish ? 

Construction and Style. De Quincey introduces his essay 
with three paragraphs which emphasize the importance of the 
theme and also reveal the reasons for his especial interest in it. 


THE REVOLT OF THE TARTARS 


207 


These reasons appear to lie in its general appeal to the imagi¬ 
nation, its dramatic capabilities, and its scenical situations. (See 
note, p. 74.) Point out passages in the narrative itself which 
seem to illustrate these qualities. The narrator’s style is viva¬ 
cious, at times "impassioned.” Give examples of this elevated 
style. The student should be certain that he understands every 
word, — not merely that its meaning in the text may be clear, 
but that the aptness of word and phrase may be appreciated. 
(See the two paragraphs, pp. ix, x.) Give some illustrations of 
De Quincey’s nice selection of words. Give an example oi his 
skill in narration ; in description. Can you indicate places where 
the author by some rhetorical device, such as suspense or climax , 
arouses the attention and stimulates interest ? 

Discuss the following topics: 

1. Realism in narration. 

2. Discrimination in the use of words. 

3. Rhythm and melody in prose. (In considering 2 and 3, see the 
Study of Ruskin’s " Sesame and Lilies.”) 

De Quincey’s Life and Work. Read carefully pages x-xxii. 
Give some anecdote that will illustrate the eccentricity of 
De Quincey. What are the more essential qualities of his per¬ 
sonality ? How was his imagination displayed in childhood ? 
Who were some of his friends among men of note ? How was 
his life affected by the opium habit ? What connection did this 
habit have with his first contribution to literature ? In what way 
were his writings uniformly published? (See p. xviii.) How nu¬ 
merous were they? What is to be said of their scope? How 
should he be classified with respect to his field of work ? What 
seems to you to have been the aim and purpose of his literary 
undertakings ? 

The principal authorities on De Quincey are noted on pages 
xxii, xxiii. 

Write brief themes upon the following subjects: 

1. De Quincey as a scholar. 

2. The imaginative power of De Quincey. 


208 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


MACAULAY’S "LORD CLIVE" AND "WARREN 
HASTINGS ” 

Introduction. The aim to be kept in mind during the reading 
of "Lord Clive” and "Warren Hastings” is explained in the 
Prefatory Note and in the Introduction (pp. xvi-xvii). The pur¬ 
pose is not to master all details of historical allusion, but to learn 
in a general way the main points brought out by the essayist, 
and to understand how he secured and held the interest of his 
readers. In order that the pupil may enjoy the brilliant and 
picturesque narrative, he may first hurry through the essays, 
skimming the cream of lively narrative, — for example, Clive’s 
victory at Plassey and Hastings’s encounter with Nuncomar. A 
second reading, done a little more carefully, will make the main 
divisions clear, and enable the student to take in as many details 
as it is deemed advisable to try to hold in mind. A final general 
view would clinch the main facts of the careers of the two Eng¬ 
lishmen at that time most concerned in the evolution of English 
control in India, and would give a final impression of the author’s 
characteristic manner of writing and of the sort of man he was. 

The reading of "Clive” and "Hastings” may give the stu¬ 
dent a taste for other historical and biographical essays by 
Macaulay, such as those on the "Earl of Chatham,” "Judge 
Jeffreys,” "The Last Days of Jeffreys,” "Frederic the Great,” 
"Machiavelli,” and "History.” Some readers, too, will turn to 
his celebrated "History of England.” 

The Argument and the Incidents. To assist in grasping the 
principal ideas of the "Clive” and "Hastings” questions are 
asked and suggestions are made in the Notes. 

As a help to the understanding of the lives of Clive and 
Hastings, see the brief sketches, pages xviii-xxiii of the Intro¬ 
duction. Inasmuch as Macaulay habitually avoided clogging his 
lively narrative with dates, these condensed accounts, in which 
dates are given freely, should aid the reader to follow the text 
of the essays. The principal books useful for collateral reading 
are mentioned in these sketches. 


"LORD CLIVE” AND "WARREN HASTINGS” 209 

Maps are an invaluable aid to the comprehension of a histori¬ 
cal narrative. The two maps (pp. xxiv, 92) have been drawn 
particularly to fit Macaulay’s narrative. These maps contain 
only the places referred to in the essays, and consequently are 
easy to use. 

Regarding the abundant historical and literary explanatory 
notes, it needs to be said that they are given only in cases 
where it would appear that the necessary information could not 
be found in books generally available in school libraries. 

Frequent comments are made on Macaulay’s blunders as 
to facts. See, for instance, page xxiii of the Introduction. 

On pages 265-268 are topics on the contents of the essays. 

Construction and Style. Regarding Macaulay’s method of writ¬ 
ing a review, comments are made on pages 222, 241. 

In the Notes, attention is directed to Macaulay’s habit of in¬ 
troducing general matter not directly pertaining tp the lives of 
Clive and Hastings but pertinent to the general theme, the work 
of the English in India; for example, see Notes, 124 19. Among 
the general subjects at the end of the book are several that are 
easily within the powers of high-school readers: 

1. Macaulay’s vocabulary, sentences, and paragraphs compared with 
your own in the longest piece of writing that you have ever done. 

2. Macaulay’s figures of speech. 

3. The clearness, coherence, force, elegance, rhythm, or other 
qualities of Macaulay’s style. (Give examples freely. See the Study 
of Macaulay’s "Life of Johnson,” under Construction and Style.) 

4. Do you admire Macaulay’s way of writing ? What seem to you 
its merits and its defects ? 

Macaulay’s Life and Work. The Introduction suggests an¬ 
swers to such questions as these: 

1. What did the world do for Macaulay? 

2. What did he do for the world ? 

3. What kind of preparation did he have for his life work? 

4. What official positions did he hold ? 

5. What kinds of writing did he do? 

6. From his schoolboy letter to his mother, what can you infer 
concerning the temper and character of his parents ? 


210 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


One of the chief benefits to be gained from any casual study 
of Macaulay’s life is an introduction to Trevelyan’s "Life and 
Letters of Lord Macaulay,” to which reference is made on 
page xii of the Introduction. See also the Study of Macaulay’s 
"Life of Johnson.” 

MACAULAY’S LIFE OF JOHNSON 

Introduction. Macaulay wrote two essays on Johnson. 
The reasons for his writing twice on the same subject are 
pointed out in the Introduction (IV, p. xxviii), and these very 
reasons go far toward telling which production is likely to be 
the more interesting. It has proved convenient to call the 
earlier work the " Essay ” and the later work the " Life.” In 
reading this miniature " Life,” the first purpose is to become 
acquainted with Dr. Johnson, one of the greatest men of the 
eighteenth century; the second purpose is to learn something 
about Macaulay, one of the ablest writers of the nineteenth 
century. In learning how Macaulay came by the facts and 
impressions he has so ably presented, the student forms his 
own opinions of both Johnson and Macaulay, and through 
the study of this presentation he may gradually understand the 
virtues of a remarkably clear and forcible style of writing. 

The first rapid reading (see Introduction, III, p. xxv) should 
be followed by a slow, thoughtful rereading, during which stu¬ 
dents who wish to form a definite opinion of Johnson., especially 
of Johnson the man, in his later years, should turn frequently to 
Boswell’s " Life of Johnson.” 

The Setting. When and where was Johnson born ? Where 
is Lichfield? (See p. 77.) Where did he attend college? 
Where did he live during the first five years after leaving col¬ 
lege ? (See p. 5, lines 28 ff.) What city then became his home ? 
Where did he spend practically all of the rest of his life ? Where 
did he die ? Students who wish to know about London in the 
eighteenth century are referred to page xxxij; those who wish 
to look into the history of the period, to pages xxx-xxxi. Interest 


MACAULAY’S LIFE OF JOHNSON 


211 


in Lichfield and Oxford may be gained through reports or 
themes based on Baedeker’s " Great Britain ” and " London.” A 
theme on " London in Johnson’s time ” may be preceded by 
one on " London in the twentieth century.” 

The Argument and the Incidents. His parents: What did 
Johnson inherit from his ancestors in general? from his father 
and mother ? (See pp. 1,77, and the Index to Boswell’s " Life,” 
under " Johnson, birth and parentage, and childhood.”) 

His boyhood: What sort of boy was he physically, intellec¬ 
tually, and morally ? (See p. 1.) What were his opportunities 
for reading ? What was his method of reading ? (See p. 2.) 

His college career: How was it possible for him to go to 
college ? What was the effect of college life on him ? (See pp. 
3, 4, 78.) What impression did he make on the other boys and 
on his tutors ? (See pp. 3-4.) Why did he fail to get a degree ? 

His thirty years’ struggle: Note the resolves that he made 
upon the death of his father. (See p. 78.) What steps did he 
take toward winning his fortune, and what difficulties beset him ? 
(See pp. 4-23.) This question may be answered in a theme. 
A list of the undertakings and the accompanying difficulties will 
serve as a topical outline, and the pupil’s judgment should enable 
him to determine how much space to give to each topic. For 
example, paragraph 10, pages 7-8, is very important and should 
be summed up with great care. (See also pp. 51-58.) 

What persons were kind to him during this trying period, and 
in what ways did they show their kindness ? (A question that 
may be answered in a theme. There may be two or more refer¬ 
ences to the same person, as to Henry Hervey, pp. 5, 8.) 

The following are good topics for discussion: 

1. Johnson and Pope (p. 12). 

2. Johnson and Savage (pp. 13-14). 

3. Johnson and Chesterfield (pp. 14-15, 19-20, 84-85). 

4. Johnson and Garrick (pp. 16-17). 

5. Johnson and his wife (pp. 6, 7, 19). 

6. Johnson and his mother (p. 22). 

7. Johnson and Sheridan, and the dramatist’s mother (p. 86, and 
Boswell’s Index). 


212 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


What was the effect of the struggles of these thirty years on 
Johnson’s character ? (See p. 9. To determine whether Macau¬ 
lay has exaggerated, see Boswell’s description of Johnson’s life 
in London at the time, and the paragraphs preceding the account 
of the Round Robin, 1776.) 

What was their effect on others ? (Note his work as reporter 
(pp. 9-11), his " London,” his” Life of Savage,” " The Vanity 
of Human Wishes,” " Irene,” the Rambler , the Dictionary 
(pp. 14, 15, 19-21, 81), the Literary Magazine , the Idler , 
" Rasselas.”) 

His last twenty years: What event went far toward brighten¬ 
ing the remaining twenty years of his life ? What change did it 
make in his manner of living ? Why was he given a pension ? 
Had he any scruples about accepting it? (See pp. 24, 87.) 

During these last years he was influential both as writer and 
as talker. Name the important works he produced during this 
period and give one or two comments on each. Note the most 
serious defect, according to Macaulay, in his edition of Shake¬ 
speare. (See pp. 26-27.) Note also his new feeling toward the 
Scotch, and his equipment as biographer of literary men. 

Prepare a three-minute talk on Johnson’s Club. (See pp. 27- 
29, 75-76, and Boswell, under Clubs.) 

Prepare short talks, or themes, on the following subjects. 
Note any difference between Macaulay and Boswell, and call 
attention to any instances of exaggeration. Whenever possible 
account for these differences: 

1. Johnson and the Thrales. (See note on Italian fiddler, p. 93, 
and Boswell.) 

2. Johnson in his Fleet Street home. 

3. Boswell’s "Johnson.” (See pp. 29-30, 45-51, 89-90, and the 
book itself.) 

4. Boswell. (See the foregoing references, and Introduction, 
p. xxx.) 

5. The friends at his deathbed. (See p. 42, and note on Frances 
Burney, p. 93.) 

6. Johnson’s lack of politeness. (See pp. 60, 94.) 

7. Johnson’s religion. (See pp. 5, 62-64.) 


MACAULAY’S LIFE OF JOHNSON 


213 


8. Johnson on government. (See pp. 10, 36, 64-65.) 

9 . Johnson as literary critic. (See pp. 66-68.) 

10. Johnson’s travels. (See pp. 33-34, 71-72.) 

11. Johnson on men and manners. (See pp. 68, 69.) 

12. Johnson’s style as a writer. (See pp. 72-75.) 

13. Johnson’s fame. (See pp. 42-43, 76.) 

What and how produced was the effect of society on Johnson 
(1) during the thirty years’ struggle ? (2) during the last twenty 
years ? What and how produced was Johnson’s effect on society 
(1) during the thirty years’ struggle ? (2) during the last twenty 
years ? (See Introduction, p. xix, and the accompanying footnote.) 

Make an outline of the life of Johnson, including only the 
more important facts. Plan it so that it will serve as the basis 
of a three-minute talk or a short summary. 

Some of his contemporaries : On page xxix of the Introduc¬ 
tion, under Reference Books, attention is called to the most 
scholarly edition of Boswell’s "Johnson” and to an edition in 
one volume that is well adapted to the needs of the pupils. The 
index of the one-volume edition presents a very full outline of 
Johnson’s life and will prove an excellent guide to the student 
who wishes to secure interesting information about Beau- 
clerk, Boswell, Chesterfield, Garrick, Goldsmith, Percy, Pope, 
Reynolds, Sheridan, and others. There is, too, in Leslie 
Stephen’s " Samuel Johnson,” in the English Men of Letters 
Series, a valuable chapter on Johnson and his Friends. 

Construction and Style. Students who wish to know Macaulay 
as a writer should be familiar with his " Lays of Ancient Rome ” 
and several of his essays, and should not neglect his " History.” 
They may begin by testing his tendency to exaggerate, which 
has been pointed out by many writers. If he is compared with 
Boswell, a good question is, To what extent, if any, is Macaulay’s 
" Life ” somewhat like a caricature of the literary dictator of 
the eighteenth century? See also page 45, lines 12-14, "He 
was . . . intellect ” ; page 48, lines 6-8," There is . . . absurd.” 
Compare this last statement with Boswell’s view of " Taxation 
no Tyranny” in Boswell’s letter to Johnson, February 28, 1778. 


214 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Equally important, as showing not only Macaulay’s character 
but the temper that underlay his writing, are his views on history 
(p. 72, lines n-31), on criticism (pp. 66-67, paragraph 26), on 
Johnson’s judgment (pp. 70-71, paragraph 31), and on his own 
sense of consistency (p. 65, lines 13-24). Of particular interest 
are his views on language (pp. 72-73, paragraph 34) and on 
Johnson’s style (pp. 73-74, paragraph 36). 

The clearness of Macaulay’s style is remarkable. " Nobody 
ever wrote more clearly,” says Leslie Stephen. His sister 
Margaret writes that it probably " proceeds in some measure 
from the habit of conversing with very young people, to whom 
he has a great deal to explain and impart.” This comment con¬ 
tains a good suggestion; it certainly is an excellent plan for any 
pupil who is preparing a talk or a theme to discuss the subject 
informally in conversation with other pupils. 

Writers who are timid about repeating a word should observe 
the readiness with which Macaulay repeats — sometimes for 
the sake of clearness (p. 14, line 33), sometimes for the sake of 
force (p. 4, lines 16, 20 ff.; p. 45, lines 1-7). Students who 
are not convinced of the value of the specific word over the 
general word will find abundant illustration in Macaulay’s ways 
of securing force. (On p. 4, line 30, compare the three specific 
words with the general term " eccentricities.”) Those whose 
sentences are likely to be long should note the value of short 
sentences. Those who balk at writing character sketches should 
study his vivid painting. (See p. 75, lines 24 ff.) Those who are 
sufficiently appreciative will note his fondness for contrast and 
balance, the rapidity of his style, his startling comparisons, the 
abundance of illustration and explanation, and his figures of 
speech. (For balance, illustration and explanations, and fine 
figurative language, see the paragraph beginning on p. 4, 
line 20.) 

In the Introduction (III, "The Study of Macaulay”) is given 
an outline of an examination of the "Life ” as a whole composi¬ 
tion, made up in turn of paragraphs, sentences, and words. (See 
pp. xxv-xxviii.) 


MACAULAY’S LIFE OF JOHNSON 


215 


In the paragraph beginning on page 7, line 22, comment on 
the connection with the preceding paragraph. State the substance 
of the paragraph in a single sentence. Name the particulars 
that go to establish this statement. Point out other paragraphs 
that are developed in a similar way; that is, by following up a 
topic sentence with details. 

To what is the force of this paragraph due ? How many of 
the sentences do you consider long ? How many short ? How 
many are periodic ? How many are loose ? 

Comment on the position of "never” (p. 7, line 22); the repeti¬ 
tion of "calling” (lines 2 2-23); the choice of the words "eminent” 
and "munificently” (line 25), and "aptitude” (line 27); the 
repetition of "dreary” (lines 33-34), " flourish ” (p. 8, lines 1-2), 
and " author ” (p. 8, lines 6, 8, 9); the choice of words in lines 
12-14 (p. 8) ; the choice of "novice,” "measured,” "scornful,” 
"athletic,” and "uncouth ” (p. 8, lines 15-18). 

In the paragraph beginning at the top of page 9 discuss the 
length of the sentences and the choice of words. Mention 
any startling comparisons and any examples of contrast and 
balance. 

Find instances in which a departure from the normal order 
of words adds to the effectiveness of the sentence. 

Macaulay’s Life and Work. For a list of carefully selected 
articles and books on Macaulay, see Introduction, page xxxii. 

The sketch on pages ix-xxiii gives one a glimpse of the boy 
in his home, at school, and at college, and partly explains the 
man’s happiness and greatness. 

The accompanying footnotes give references to letters and 
passages in Trevelyan’s " Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay,” 
which some pupils will be glad to read in order to get detailed 
accounts of the boy’s precocity, his love of home, the devotion 
of his parents to him and his affection for them and for his 
brothers and sisters, his college life, his first appearance in the 
House of Commons, his’ choosing between law and politics, his 
ambition to become a historian, and the energy he put into the 
preparation of his " History.” Trevelyan’s Index suggests good 


216 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


topics for investigation and points the way to the answers to 
questions that naturally suggest themselves. 

The Chronology of Macaulay’s .Life and Works, on pages 
xxxii-xxxiii, enables one to make a rapid survey of Macaulay’s 
achievements in public life and in literature. It impresses one 
with the fact that the two kinds of activity flourished side by 
side for a long time. 

What was Macaulay’s attitude toward his literary contem¬ 
poraries ? (See p. xxiv.) What prose writers and what poets 
were prominent contemporaries of Macaulay? (See p. xxiii.) 
What novelists produced practically all of their best work 
during his lifetime? (See p. xxiii.) 

THE OREGON TRAIL 

Introduction. The editor’s Introduction, Part III, gives the 
backgrounds of the narrative. Though the reader can follow 
most of the main outlines without assistance, his interest in 
"The Oregon Trail” will be considerably heightened by some 
knowledge of conditions of time and place. Thus Part III 
should be studied before one starts in imagination on the west¬ 
ward journey with Parkman, and should be frequently referred 
to, along with the map and notes, while one is under way. 
Again, the incidents are so numerous and often so casually 
connected, the places so varied and changing, and the people 
so unfamiliar, that the reader must strike, as it were, the lei¬ 
surely pace of the adventurous young travelers themselves; he 
cannot enjoy the book if he skims it, any more than he could 
have enjoyed the real journey if he had taken it with undue 
haste. The suggestive Bibliography has been added for those 
who desire to extend their knowledge of the Old West beyond 
the limits of this edition; many of the works are of absorbing 
interest. 

If this book, the first that Parkman wrote, stimulates one to 
know more about the author, who even here as a very young 
man seems so original and clever and daring, and suggests 


THE OREGON TRAIL 


217 


some questions about the books which he afterwards wrote, the 
reader may turn to Parts I and II of the Introduction. He 
will probably then want to read the thrilling and gorgeous pages 
of "Pontiac,” and, making next the acquaintance of "The 
Jesuits in North America,” so full of far-away adventures with 
the Indians about the Great Lakes, he will go on to " La Salle,” 
a tale which marches along with almost the unity of plot of 
a well-constructed romance, and he will not stop before complet¬ 
ing the series. But even should his first preference be "Mont¬ 
calm and Wolfe,” or "A Half Century of Conflict,” which deal 
with events more immediately antecedent to the history of the 
United States and are possibly more deliberate and austere in 
style, being written in later life, he will be likely to go back to 
the others. One might suggest a reading of Parkman’s Histo¬ 
ries in historical order, beginning with the "Pioneers of France 
in the New World” and ending with "Pontiac”; the books, 
though written at different times, aim to present a consecutive 
history. 

The Setting. One may find it a pleasant exercise to recall 
and reproduce some of the more vivid scenes; as, for instance, 
a thunderstorm on the prairie, the character of the Platte 
country, the Black Hills in summer and winter, the buffalo herd 
in the distance. He might, too, contrast the appearance of dif¬ 
ferent regions of the West as they looked to Parkman and as 
they look now. For instance, riding along the foot of the 
Rockies, what would one see to-day that Parkman did not ? Is 
the difference due to nature or to man ? 

The Narrative and the Incidents. The following topics may 
be helpful in suggesting discussions, exercises, or short themes, 
but the alert teacher or pupil will think of many others: 

1. Tell briefly the story of Parkman’s journey, indicating its main 
divisions. 

2. Make from memory a list of some striking episodes, and see 
how fully you can reproduce one or more of them in your own words. 

3. Describe the construction and character of a typical fur-trading 
post. 


218 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


4. What do you learn from "The Oregon Trail" of the Mexican 
War? 

5. Describe a caravan of emigrants en route, distinguishing what 
you find about them in the text from what you find in the Intro¬ 
duction. 

6. With what tribes of Indians did Parkman come in contact? 
To what tribe did the Oglala belong? 

7. What suggestions do you get concerning the life, habits, and 
beliefs of the Sioux Indians? For instance, what do you learn of 
Indian government ? of superstitions ? of dress ? of children and fam¬ 
ily life? of construction of tepees? of Indian foods? of the work of 
the squaws? of Indians in camp and on the march? of Indian tem¬ 
perament ? of methods of hunting the buffalo, and the various uses 
of the buffalo in Indian life? 

The Characters. Does Parkman make his companions indi¬ 
vidual ? If so, how ? By describing them ? by showing them 
in action ? by repeating their conversation ? Which of these 
methods are used by novelists ? Does Parkman show any 
knowledge of human nature ? Give examples. Write brief 
characterizations of each of his companions, or a detailed char¬ 
acterization of one of them. Which one did Parkman chiefly 
admire ? Which was the coward and clown of the party ? Is 
the action of the story at any point determined by the character 
of any one person ? Does Parkman make any of his Indian 
acquaintances distinctive? Write a character sketch of the 
Indian — whether man, woman, or child — that most excited 
your interest; a character sketch of a typical trapper. Does 
Parkman put any individuality into the horses, mules, or other 
animals he mentions ? 

Construction and Style. In addition to the topics mentioned 
above, which are associated with the problem of construction, 
the following are suggested: 

1. What is the difference between narration with plot and narra¬ 
tion without plot ? To which class does "The Oregon Trail” belong? 

2. Does the narrative drag at any point? Are the connections be¬ 
tween the different portions of the narrative clear ? Are the episodes 
brought into the main narrative naturally, or are they confusing 


THE OREGON TRAIL 


219 

digressions unrelated to the main narrative? Does Parkman show 
any skill in holding our interest by suspense ? 

3. Do you enjoy Parkman’s touches of humor? Does he see the 
funny side of incidents and situations or of human nature; that is, 
is his humor that of circumstances or of character, or of both? 
Which kind of humor most appeals to you? 

4. Does he show most skill in the description of the appearance 
of scenery or of people or of animals ? Does he in description appeal 
only to the sense of sight, or also to the senses of hearing, smell, taste, 
and touch ? Find examples. Pick out paragraphs, sentences, phrases, 
and words that strike you as particularly vivid, and study them closely 
in order to discover the sources of their power. 

5. Do you notice any expressions that seem stilted or pompous? 
that are archaic ? Are there any words or phrases of noticeably fre¬ 
quent recurrence? Is the vocabulary large and precise for that of 
a young man of twenty-three ? Compare the style of Parkman’s 
prefaces of 1872 and 1892 with the style of "The Oregon Trail.” 

6. Is the dialogue of "The Oregon Trail” in character; that is, 
does it "sound natural” to the individual and the circumstances? 

7. Note some of the irregularities in punctuation and slips in gram¬ 
mar, especially the illogical pronominal references and dangling par¬ 
ticiples. Are these serious blemishes relative to the high qualities of 
the work as a whole ? 

Parkman’s Life and Work. The student must realize that a 
book is a part of a man. Thus the study of a work of literature 
is largely the study of a man, — his ways of planning and doing 
things ; his habits and tastes; his intellectual and moral qualities. 
This is especially true of a book like "The Oregon Trail.” 
Many of the questions already suggested for discussion, if 
answered intelligently, will help us to understand the man be¬ 
hind the book. 

Does Parkman, as a young man Out in the wild, show any 
of the characteristics of the Parkman of later years, the scholar 
in the study ? (Compare Introduction, Part I.) Would you 
know from reading "The Oregon Trail” that the story was the 
adventure of a young man; or that it was written by a young 
man ? If so, why ? 


220 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


WALDEN 

Introduction. The important question in the minds of young 
readers who are brought in contact with a book like " Walden ” 
will be, "What is the writer driving at?” It is exceptionally 
difficult to answer the question offhand in this instance, for the 
reason that all his life Thoreau was driving at two different 
things. He is now chiefly thought of as a student and lover of 
nature. If we use the word " nature ” in its largest possible sense, 
the definition may pass. Thoreau was quite as much a philoso¬ 
phizer on men and nature as a natural historian; that is, one 
side of him was as much interested in questions of human nature 
and experience as the other side was in the minute observation 
of trees and birds and waters and seasons. As he grew older, 
the passion of observing and recording became stronger. His 
Journal shows that he distrusted it and tried to resist it, because 
he thought it made his imagination less active, unfitted him for 
his higher work of poet and philosopher. In "Walden” and 
"A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers ” there is no 
conflict between the two interests. Thoreau would not have 
lived his two years at Walden Pond if he had been merely a 
nature lover or merely a philosopher. 

Thoreau’s philosophy of life is stated with some fullness in 
the first three chapters of "Walden.” These chapters were 
written on the spot, in the first glow of his experiment. The 
later chapters are more concerned with the satisfactions of life 
as Thoreau lived it in his lake-side hut, and less with the vices 
and follies of the world outside. It must be remembered that 
the book was not published till some seven years after the end 
of the Walden experience. 

It is plain that "Walden” does not belong to any of the more 
familiar classes of books. It is not a book of nature study, nor 
of literary essays, nor of pure autobiography, nor of moral dis¬ 
course ; that is, it is not any one of these things, but partakes of 
them all. Yet there are other famous books with which it may 
naturally be classed, and which the student would do well to 


WALDEN 


221 


read in connection with it: Izaak Walton’s " The Compleat 
Angler,” White’s "Natural History of Selborne,” "An English 
Village” by Richard Jefferies, and "Signs and Seasons” or 
"Riverby” by John Burroughs. 

The Setting. Such a book has its setting, as distinct as that of 
any novel or play. Here it is the New England village and neigh¬ 
borhood of half a century ago. The railroad is still enough of a 
novelty to excite the imagination of the dweller by Walden Pond. 
Ice-harvesting by modern methods is a curiosity. The post office 
is the center of village life. Thoreau’s escape from the village 
to what we should call his camp by Walden was regarded as 
a desperate experiment; it would hardly be noticed now. The 
student should be encouraged to draw contrasts and parallels 
between the country life of Thoreau’s day and that of our own. 

The following subjects may be suggested for themes or 
discussions: 

1. The New England farmer’s life as Thoreau saw it. (See 
chap, i.) 

2. The misfortune of inheriting property. (See chap, i.) 

3. The necessaries of life, and the natural way to get them. (See 
chap, i.) 

4. Thoreau’s "business” at Walden. 

5. How Thoreau built his house. (See chap, i.) 

The Argument and the Incidents. The argument, or drift of 
the book, is toward that independent search for the true way of 
living which seemed the main thing to Thoreau, as well as to 
Emerson and the rest of the "Transcendentalists.” They be¬ 
lieved that every man should go his own way; and this led 
them to distrust all commonly accepted beliefs. Hence we find 
Thoreau making many extravagant statements which have to 
be taken with a grain of salt, such as : " The greater part of what 
my neighbors call good I believe in my soul to be bad, and if I 
repent of anything, it is very likely to be my good behavior”; 
or, "I have lived some thirty years on this planet, and I have 
yet to hear the first syllable of valuable or even earnest advice 
from my Seniors.” (See chap, i.) He used a sledge hammer 


222 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


because he wanted to be sure of making his impression. Atten¬ 
tion should be called to the often sharp contrast between the 
passages in which he is delivering his message as a moralist and 
minor prophet, and those in which he is enjoying his nearness to 
nature and life at first hand. Contrast, for example, the pages 
in which he rails at modern social life, or industrial slavery (see 
chap, i), or the bad taste of the general reader (see chap, iii), with 
the serene chapters which follow on Sounds, and Solitude, or 
(in The Bean-Field) with the account of his farming experiment. 
In later chapters, as The Village (see chap, viii) and Baker 
Farm (see chap, x), the sharper note is heard again; but the 
second half of the Volume is largely free from it. 

The incidents which give the book its real charm are of the 
simplest kind. They have to do with Thoreau’s experiences in 
the natural world, which he felt to be alive about him. Walden 
Pond, for instance, is like a person to him, as are all the ponds 
in the neighborhood. (See chaps, i, ix.) Even solitude is a 
companion. (See chap, v.) 

The student may profitably try to reproduce in his own words 
Thoreau’s description of the red squirrel’s antics (see chap, xv) 
or of the appearance of Walden Pond in winter. (See chap, xvi.) 

As subjects for talks or themes, the following may be suggested: 

1. Thoreau’s attitude toward wild animals. 

2. Thoreau’s experiences with the loon. (See chap, xii.) 

3. The ice-making. (See chap, xvi.) 

4. Birds in spring. (See chap, xvii.) 

The Characters. With all Thoreau’s love of solitude, and with 
all the sharpness of his attacks on society, he was anything but 
a hater of his fellow men. The chapter (vi) which follows that 
on Solitude begins, '’I think I love society as much as most”; 
and so he does, when it does not begin with a capital. He often 
has visitors in his hut (see chap, vi), and every day or two he 
goes to the village " to hear some of the gossip.” (See chap, viii.) 
Some of the human sketches in the book are among the pas¬ 
sages to be remembered longest, for their perfect simplicity and 


WALDEN 


223 


sympathy. Such is the picture of the luckless John Field (chap, x); 
of the old hunter who comes to bathe in Walden once a year 
(chap, xv); of some of Thoreau’s predecessors on the shores of 
Walden (chap, xiv); and, above all, of the Canadian woodchopper 
for whom Thoreau had so high a regard (chap. vi). But of 
course the chief character in the book is Thoreau himself, and 
if he does not make us acquainted with him, it is not because 
he spares the pains. Whether he is flinging out at society in the 
large or at his fellow citizens of Concord; describing the habits 
of a bird or the formation of a tree; or simply expressing his 
love -for the life of free Nature, — he is always throwing light 
upon himself for our benefit. 

These subjects for themes and discussions have to do with 
Thoreau’s attitude toward his fellow men: 

1. Thoreau and his village neighbors. (See chaps, i, viii.) 

2. Visitors to the hut at Walden. (See chap, vi.) 

3. The railroad. (See chap, iv.) , 

4. His friend the poet. (See chap, xiv.) 

5. The Canadian woodchopper. (See chap, vi.) 

6. John Field. (See chap, x.) 

These subjects are connected with his theories of life: 

1. What to live for. (See chaps, i, ii, and iii especially.) 

2. What to eat. (See chaps, i, xi.) 

3. What to wear. (See chap, i.) 

4. What to read. (See chap, iii.) 

5. What to hope for, in the progress of the world. (See chap, xviii.) 

Construction and Style. The chapters of " Walden ” are not 
built upon any formal plan, but each of them develops simply 
and naturally. It will be useful for the student to draft an out¬ 
line of some of them, say chapters i, v, xv. 

He should also consider such questions as the following: 

1. How does Thoreau’s style compare with that of his friend 
Emerson ? 

2. How far does Thoreau’s interest in theories of human life or 
in facts of natural history (see above) affect the structure of his 
chapters ? 


224 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


3. Classify the chapters according as they primarily express one 
or the other of these interests. 

4. Do you find any passages that might be dispensed with? 
Where? 

5. Which one of the chapters do you find most interesting? 
Why ? Examine the chapter in question to see whether its construc¬ 
tion or style, or both, have anything to do with your preference. 

Thoreau’s Life and Work. Henry David Thoreau was of 
French descent on his father’s side. He was born in Concord, 
Massachusetts, July 12,1817. At twenty he was graduated from 
Harvard without distinction. He was already under the influence 
of Emerson’s theory of self-reliance, and he seems to have made 
up his mind to live his own life. Soon after returning to Con¬ 
cord he refused to pay a church tax which was still exacted of 
his fellow townsmen. He would not apply himself to any em¬ 
ployment as a life work, but chose the freedom of the Jack-of- 
all-trades. He lived as cheaply as possible, and earned what 
he must have, teaching, surveying, carpentering, gardening, or 
plying his father’s trade of pencil-maker. In 1845 be began 
his two years’ experience at Walden Pond, in a hut of his 
own making, — the hermit-philosopher experience chronicled in 
"Walden.” But he emerged abruptly from this solitude to take 
up Emerson’s trade of lecturer-author. As a lecturer he had 
success, but his published work was small. Only two books by 
him, "Walden” and "A Week on the Concord and Merrimack 
Rivers,” were printed during his lifetime. There is an account 
in his diary of his getting back from the publisher the unsold 
copies of the latter book. He carried them upstairs to his study, 
and his comment was, "I have now a library of nearly nine 
hundred volumes, over seven hundred of which I wrote myself.” 
He was never married. In 1857 his father died, and for the 
sake of his mother and sister Thoreau took up pencil-making 
again in earnest. But he was already consumptive, and after a 
vain journey West, he returned to die in Concord, May 6, 1862. 

His real fame came after death. Volume after volume was 
made up chiefly of unpublished material; and last of all has 


AN INLAND VOYAGE 


225 

come the Journal, which makes a full shelf of the authorized 
edition of his works. Here is the list: 

1849. A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers. 

1854. Walden. 

1863. Excursions. 

1864. The Maine Woods. 

1865. Cape Cod. 

1865. Letters. 

1866. A Yankee in Canada. 

1881. Early Spring in Massachusetts. 

1884. Summer. 

1887. Winter. 

1892. Autumn. 

1906. Journal. 

The chief books for reference are the standard biography, 
" Henry D. Thoreau,” by F. B. Sanborn (American Men of 
Letters Series); " Familiar Letters,” edited by F. B. Sanborn; 
"Life of Thoreau,” by H. S. Salt (Great Writers Series); 
Thoreau, by J. R. Lowell, in " Literary Essays ”; " Familiar 
Studies of Men and Books,” by R. L. Stevenson. 

"AN INLAND VOYAGE” AND "TRAVELS WITH 
A DONKEY” 

Introduction. Stevenson says of the first of these essays that 
the book was planned as a "jolly book of gossip.” To make 
serious work of the reading will defeat the author’s purpose. 
The approach must be made in that spirit of appreciation with 
which one reads the letters of an adventurous friend. Then will 
the quaintness of the circumstances, the narrator’s joviality, and 
the cleverness of the pictures of scenery and people effectively 
stimulate and advance the reader’s interest from page to page 
until the informal account of these novel and enjoyable excur¬ 
sions is completed. 

The Setting. The pen pictures may be supplemented by a 
stock of such photographs or lantern slides as are available of 
Holland, Belgium, northern France, and the region of the 


226 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Cevennes. J. A. Hammerton’s " In the Track of R. L. Stevenson ” 
(New York, E. P. Dutton & Co.) will be found very useful. 
The attention of the class may also be called to such narratives 
of similar experiences in these and other countries as may appear 
from time to time in the illustrated magazines. 

The Essays. Some contrasts and resemblances in style and 
in point of view may be profitably drawn between Stevenson 
and Washington Irving, the Queen Anne essayists, and such 
modern writers as Hopkinson Smith and Henry Van Dyke. 
Kindred topics mentioned in "The Sketch Book” and "The 
Inland Voyage ” may furnish material for short themes. The 
narrative character of the " De Coverley Papers ” renders them 
of capital importance in work of this nature. Fruitful material 
may be found for comparison between the circumstances of life 
in rural England as depicted by Irving in " Bracebridge Hall ” 
and "The Sketch Book,” and those in the countries and among 
the people mentioned in the "Inland Voyage” and in the 
"Travels• with a Donkey.” Possibly, in connection with the 
study of the first of these volumes, some note may be made 
with reference to the change from the conditions of life in 
France, at the time of the French Revolution, as depicted by 
Charles Dickens in "A Tale of Two Cities.” 

The vividness of the descriptions of people and places should 
stimulate the class to attempt narratives of similar excursions 
undertaken during the summer vacation or on holidays. If 
any of them have had the advantage of camp life or a yacht¬ 
ing cruise or a tramping trip, abundance of excellent material 
should at once suggest itself. These essays of Stevenson’s will 
then become the mold into which the new matter is poured, 
and the task of the teacher will be chiefly confined to maintain¬ 
ing, in the new mass, that unity and logical order in which 
Stevenson excels. 

Stevenson in one of his short poems — " Foreign Children ” 
— has suggested an interesting philosophy of life. Goldsmith 
has presented in "The Traveller ” a similar view. After reading 
"An Inland Voyage” and "Travels with a Donkey,” it would 


AN INLAND VOYAGE 227 

be well for the class to discuss what new light they have on 
the subject expressed in the following quotations: 

Man’s " first best country ever is at home.” 

" You may paddle all day long; but it is when you come back at 
nightfall, and look at the familiar room, that you find Love, or Death, 
awaiting you by the stove ; and the most beautiful adventures are not 
those we go to seek.” 

Themes or discussions may be based on such subjects as 
these from "Travels with a Donkey”: 

1. Write a journal of a similar adventure, real or imaginary. 

2. Describe the true character of Modestine. 

3. What impressions do we gain concerning the inhabitants of 
the Cdvennes? 

4. The pleasures and advantages of life in a Trappist monastery. 

5. Would you follow the example of the "young private of foot ”? 

6. The noises of silence. 

7. The misadventures of the pack. 

8. The dinner at Pont de Montvert. 

9. Describe a "horrific country after the heart of Byron.” 

10. The Camisards and the Covenanters. 

11. The work of Bruce and Wallace. 

12. Sir Cloudsley Shovel. 

13. The life of the old shepherd in the black cap as told by himself. 

14. Which excursion was the more enjoyable, and why? 

These subjects for themes or discussions are based on "An 
Inland Voyage ”: 

1. The Antwerp Docks. 

2. Compare the H6tel de la Navigation with the Admiral Benbow 
in "Treasure Island.” 

3. A day on a canal boat. 

4. The humor of discomfort. 

5. Describe the race with the champion canoeist. 

6. The career of the driver of the hotel omnibus. 

7. The dangerous character of boys. 

8. Cigarette’s praise of country scenes. 

9. The opinions of Pont-sur-Sambre concerning peddlers. 

10. The holidays in a tilt cart. 

11. What some inhabitant said of the visit of the travelers. 


228 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


12. The happiness of being a tree in the forest of Mormal. 

13. The donkey’s revenge. 

14. Write a letter for Cigarette describing Arethusa’s accident. 

15. The influence of national songs. 

16. Ballooning versus canoeing. 

17. Misconceptions as causes of quarrels. 

18. Describe the adventure at La Fere from the point of view of 
the landlady. 

19. Compare the description of Noyon Cathedral with Irving’s 
and Addison’s "Westminster Abbey.” 

20. Write a letter home describing the most interesting of the 
adventures. 

Construction and Style. Stevenson’s language may well call 
for some special study. Power to write is acquired by conscious 
imitation. Benjamin Franklin’s treatment of the Spectator 
as a model is sufficiently familiar after a study of his "Auto¬ 
biography.” Stevenson confesses (A College Magazine) he 
early " played the sedulous ape ” to certain masters of prose. 
Imitation is also valuable in developing an appreciation of an 
author’s style. These special essays will be found of great serv¬ 
ice in connection with the work in English composition; the 
teacher, of course, being familiar with Stevenson’s other essays 
on " Style in Literature: Its Technical Elements,” "A Note on 
Realism,” and "The Morality of the Profession of Letters.” 

The attention of the class should be directed to Stevenson’s 
skill in phrase making. The teacher may well ask the pupils to 
consider whether Stevenson’s style is so marked as to differen¬ 
tiate it from the work of other authors, and if so, why ? 

Questions as to Stevenson’s use of figures of speech, his 
power of pathos, and his sense of humor will reveal the pupils’ 
discriminating and careful reading. The satiric touch in many 
of the paragraphs should not pass unnoticed. His sympathetic 
appreciation, his sincerity, the clearness of his insight, should 
not fail of comment. The class may be asked to write a theme 
describing the chief points of Stevenson’s style, and be required 
to cite passages to illustrate his application of the canons of 
clearness, force, and beauty. 


AN INLAND VOYAGE 


229 


Stevenson’s skill in the use of quotations and allusions should 
be scrutinized, and some inference drawn as to what were his 
habits, his likes and dislikes, and his favorite books, at the time 
these essays were written. The structure of the sentences as 
they become, from time to time, periodic, loose, balanced, ex¬ 
clamatory or interrogative, long or short, antithetical or epi¬ 
grammatic, may be discussed, and their effectiveness, in the form 
presented, may be analyzed. The vividness of his adjectives, the 
definiteness of his epithets, and his command over semitechnical 
expressions may seem, at first, too spontaneous for analysis. A 
little weighing of the effective and precise use of words in his 
sentences will show that his style, — in its melody, rhythm, force, 
and clearness, — is the product of an art delicate and restrained, 
careful in the selection of the material with which he builds and 
which he polishes with the care of a worker in ivory. (See 
Preface.) 

Stevenson’s Life and Work. The revelation the author makes 
of himself in his work will naturally lead to a careful examination 
of his career. This may be based on the article in the " Dic¬ 
tionary of National Biography,” with such attention to Balfour’s 
"Life” and to the collection of "Letters” edited by Sir Sid¬ 
ney Colvin as time permits. The pupils may well have their 
attention directed to his learning, his love of nature, the fame 
which became his, the persistency of his ambition, and the con¬ 
stancy of his friendships. Themes may be written upon his 
character as he himself presents it, and passages may be cited 
to sustain the views advanced. 

What can you tell of his family ? For what were they noted, and 
how much did Stevenson owe to heredity and early environment ? 

From the reading of "An Inland Voyage” and "Travels 
with a Donkey,” what do you think were Stevenson’s chief 
characteristics ? 

As we compare him with other writers, what were his special 
talents ? his limitations ? 

For more information about Stevenson’s life and work, see 
the Study of "Treasure Island.” 


GROUP V 


DESCRIPTIVE AND LYRIC POETRY 

I DESCRIPTIVE POETRY 
THE DESERTED VILLAGE 

Introduction. An oral reading of the poem, with time for 
rereading and enjoying the best passages, may well precede 
any study of political, industrial, or literary conditions, indispen¬ 
sable though these are to the full understanding of a work that 
is to such an unusual degree the product of the age in which it 
was written. (See pp. ix-xii.) If the author’s purpose is not 
clear to the pupil, he may be referred to page xxii. He should 
also read "The Traveller,” " She Stoops to Conquer,” and "The 
Vicar of Wakefield.” 

For comparison or contrast with "The Deserted Village,” 
Burns’s " Cotter’s Saturday Night” or Whittier’s " Snow-Bound,” 
rural idyls of somewhat similar type, may be taken up. Or Gold¬ 
smith’s poem may be compared, on the one hand, with purely 
didactic or reflective poems, like Pope’s " Essay on Man,” John¬ 
son’s "Vanity of Human Wishes,” or his own "Traveller,” and 
on the other hand with concrete poems of hfiman interest, 
like Tennyson’s "Idylls,” Scott’s narrative pieces, or Arnold’s 
" Sohrab and Rustum.” The teacher will explain that in the 
early eighteenth century a characteristic poetic method was to 
proceed from the abstract to the specific: the poet chose some 
general or abstract theme, and composed his poem of concrete 
illustrations of this theme. Characteristic subjects are Time, 
Procrastination, Riches, The Pleasures of the Imagination. 

230 


THE DESERTED VILLAGE 


23 


A different and possibly more successful method is to select 
one specific instance from human life, and leave the reader 
to generalize, as in Shakespeare’s "Macbeth,” "Hamlet,” and 
" Othello,” where the eighteenth century might have given 
us treatises on ambition, revenge, and jealousy. Both methods 
are legitimate. Goldsmith wrote when standards were changing. 
There is crossing of the two methods in "The Deserted Vil¬ 
lage.” The poem purports to be a treatise on the dangers of 
increasing wealth; but the real poem is composed of the inci¬ 
dental material, the specific illustrations. They impress us more 
forcibly than his moral and economic theories. Goldsmith is best 
when he is least the economist and most the poet. 

The Material. The following are general questions and topics 
for discussion: 

What in brief is the theme? How long does it take Goldsmith to 
get to this ? How soon do you catch the tone of the poem ? Point out 
the details of scene and the social pastimes mentioned in the opening. 
Does the poet aim to give a distinct individual picture of the village, 
or to give to the imagination vague suggestions of its atmosphere and 
life ? Do conditions in modern England bear out Goldsmith’s fears 
concerning the accumulation of land in the hands of a few owners ? 
What idea do you get of the poet’s temperament and life in lines 83- 
no? Does Goldsmith show personal feeling in presenting the char¬ 
acter of the preacher ? If so, why ? (See p. xiii.) In the description 
of the inn, do any details seem likely to have been invented, or do 
they seem quite real ? What are the poet’s reflections (lines 265-286) 
on the effects of the increase of wealth ? What is the condition de¬ 
scribed in lines 303-318? What is the fate of the inhabitants of 
Auburn? Is their lot painted hopefully by the poet? How accurate 
is his description of the New World? What are some of the scenes 
on the day of the departure of the emigrants? How economically 
sound is Goldsmith’s idea of the dangers of commercial prosperity ? 
Were the times truly so degenerate ? ( See p. 10.) Contrast lines 385- 
394 with "The Cotter’s Saturday Night,” page 24, lines 10-15, in the 
Standard English Classics edition of " Representative Poems of Robert 
Burns.” Was Burns indebted to Goldsmith? Is the apostrophe to 
poetry at the close suited to the theme ? Contrast with this the prayer 
at the close of "The Cotter’s Saturday Night.” 


232 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Theme subjects and additional topics are the following: 

1. Can Goldsmith’s village be located ? (See p. xxiii.) 

2. Goldsmith’s economic theories. 

3. Contrasts in the poem between city life and rural life. 

4. Comparison of the descriptions in the poem with those in 
Milton’s " L’Allegro.” 

5. Comparison of the humor of the poem with Pope’s " The 
Rape of the Lock.” 

6. Village scenes and life in Auburn. 

7. Description of the schoolmaster. 

8 . Description of the parson. 

9. Points of resemblance between Goldsmith’s poor parson and 
Chaucer’s. (See Appendix, p. 55.) 

1 o. Resemblances between Goldsmith’s poor parson and Dryden’s. 
(See Appendix, p. 56.) 

Construction and Style. It should be remembered that poetry 
in the eighteenth century was much read aloud. Where each 
thought, phrase, and cadence was confined within the limits of 
the couplet (p. xxiii), there was a resulting gain in lucidity for the 
hearer. The heroic couplet, treated as Goldsmith handled it, 
would afford no adequate medium of expression for the shifting 
moods and impetuous outbursts of modern poets; but it con¬ 
veyed adequately for our eighteenth-century ancestors the even 
reflections and the contemplative mood that best pleased them. 

In these days of variety and informality of style, Goldsmith’s 
diction,is likely to make less appeal. He shares with his time 
its preference for words of Latin origin over the simpler and 
more concrete vernacular forms, and its love for the personifi¬ 
cation of abstract terms. One of the marked traits of eighteenth- 
century poetic diction is a liking for stereotyped lines and phrases. 
Each noun has its set epithet, like "modest innocence,” "humble 
worth,” "glassy brook,” "refulgent lamp.” A good exercise is 
to select stock phrases from certain passages in Goldsmith’s 
poem (see lines 40-41, 360-361) and compare them with the 
fresher or more individual phrasing or word usage in passages 
from Milton or Tennyson. Goldsmith also illustrates the con¬ 
temporary tendency to repeat words (see "bowers,” lines 33, 37, 


SNOW-BOUND 233 

47, etc.; "train,” lines 63, 81, 135, etc.), and the contemporary 
liking for onomatopoeia (see lines 114, 119, 121, etc.). 

Does Goldsmith use many figures ? Are they attractive in 
themselves ? valuable in the poem ? Compare his figures with 
those of a few other poets. Point out fine lines and beautiful 
passages. 

Goldsmith’s Life and Work. See Introduction, pages xii-xx. 
Describe Goldsmith’s early life ; his college career; his attempts 
at various professions; his travels; his experiences on return¬ 
ing to England; his personality. What was the nature of his 
earliest literary work ? What are his most successful works ? 

For other books on Goldsmith, see page xxvi. For a further 
discussion of his life and work, see the Studies of "The Vicar of 
Wakefield” and Irving’s "Life of Goldsmith.” 

SNOW-BOUND 

Introduction. Whittier has called "Snow-Bound” a "winter 
idyl,” — a picture of winter in New England. Other well-known 
descriptions of winter scenes that may be compared with " Snow- 
Bound ” are Emerson’s "Snowstorm,” Longfellow’s "Woods 
in Winter,” Scott’s "Marmion” (Introduction to Canto VI), 
Lowell’s "Vision of Sir Launfal ” (Prelude to Part Second), and 
Blackmore’s " Lorna Doone,” chapter xlii. The student should 
also turn to Thomson’s Winter in " The Seasons ” and to 
notable passages in Cowper’s " Task.” He may also search 
for similar descriptions in the poetry of Wordsworth and Bry¬ 
ant. Other poems in which Whittier describes New England 
scenes are "The Huskers,” "The Frost Spirit,” "A Dream 
of Summer,” "Storm on Lake Asquam,” and "The Tent on 
the Beach.” The poem as a whole may be compared with 
Burns’s " Cotter’s Saturday Night ” and Goldsmith’s " Deserted 
Village.” 

The Material. The title‘indicates the circumstances of the 
poem, and the poem tells what is done and said under those 
circumstances. The author describes his boyhood home near 



234 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Haverhill, Massachusetts, and one may still see the house, the 
barn, and the surroundings as Whittier knew them in his youth. 
The student may properly make a list of the lines that show the 
poet’s exact knowledge of the subject. 

The following topics may suggest the nature of the material 
that Whittier employed, and are suitable for short themes or 
discussions: 

1. A boy’s life on a New England farm. (See lines 18-30, 66-93.) 

2. A girl’s life on a New England farm. (See lines 360-365.) 

3. Old-fashioned games. (See lines 444-445, 462-466.) 

4. A country schoolmaster. (See lines 438-479.) 

5. Chores. (See lines 19-22.) 

6. Advantages and disadvantages of surroundings such as Whittier 
describes. 

7. Sentiments of home, of life and death, of religion, of hope and 
happiness. 

In the material of the poem the characters are particularly 
important. The picture includes a characteristic group of "old 
New England stock.” Who are assembled at the hearth ? Is 
the picture of Whittier’s father clear? (See lines 66-67.) Are 
the descriptions concise ? sympathetic ? Which one of the group 
was the dearest to the poet ? Does he believe in satire ? (See lines 
579—589.) Read the poem " Ichabod ” to see how he expressed 
himself when he disapproved of a person’s actions. Write in 
prose Longfellow’s description of Evangeline (lines 60-81) and 
Whittier’s description of his aunt (lines 350-370). Which poet’s 
picture do you prefer? Write sentence descriptions of the char¬ 
acters in the poem. Show that Harriet Livermore is used by 
way of contrast to emphasize the sweetness of the Whittier 
household. 

These subjects may be used for themes: 

1. Contrast the character and fortunes of Harriet Livermore with 
those of Whittier’s mother. 

2. Describe fully the character that you like best, and be prepared 
to show that your theme is true to the suggestions of the poem. What 
in the character does Whittier wish us to admire ? 


SNOW-BOUND 


235 


Construction and Style. The plan of the poem is simple and 
effective. The snowstorm shuts out the great world from the 
Whittier household and centers attention on the family. The 
reader forgets everything that does not interest the little group, 
and is eager to know as much as possible about each person 
in it. The wildness of the storm and the complete isolation of 
the family also make the hearth seem doubly cozy and add to 
the importance of each person present. Thus the reader listens 
naturally to the stories, plays the simple country games, and 
peeps into the few treasured books. The next morning the 
farmers, breaking out the roads, suddenly bring back the out¬ 
side world again; the doctor rides by; the floundering carrier 
brings the village paper: 

Wide swung again our ice-locked door, 

And all the world was ours once more. 

Show that the poem is coherent, and that each picture is 
naturally introduced. Make a list of the important descriptions 
in the poem. Do all the smaller pictures blend in the larger 
one ? Compare the poem with Scott’s " Lady of the Lake.” 
Compare the description of the Whittier fireside (lines 155-178) 
with Longfellow’s "Evangeline” (lines 199-217). 

The following subjects are suitable for themes and discussions: 

1. Separate the poem into introduction, body, and conclusion. 

2. Write a theme on a subject suggested by line 325, or lines 
361-362. 

3. Describe a snowstorm in your own words. Compare your 
theme with the description in the poem, noting particularly Whittier’s 
use of adjectives to make a description vivid. (See lines 1—18, 41-65, 
93 ~ I2 5 , I 43 -I 54 -) 

A true poet sees clearly, is a close observer. Show that 
Whittier has a good knowledge of details. (See lines 33-36, 
41-46, 273-283.) Lines 175-177 are intended as an introduc¬ 
tion by contrast to the "hearth-fire’s ruddy glow” described 
immediately afterwards. Show that the following lines suggest 
other contrasts: 224-255, 274-283; 333-349? 625-628. 


236 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


These subjects may suggest short themes or discussions on 
the style of the poem: 

1. Whittier’s use of two adjectives to one noun, and double adjec¬ 
tives to give terse descriptions. (See lines 6, 11, 45, 58, 63, 66, 100, 
135, etc.; 12, 34, 118, 131, 155, 218, 395, etc.) 

2. Make a list of the adjectives in the first eighteen lines and show 
how each is appropriate. 

3. Point out similes or metaphors in the following lines: 39-40, 
60-61, 130-131, 281, 428-431, 725. 

4. Point out all the figures of speech in lines 715— 739 - 

The poem is written in iambic tetrameter riming couplets. 
Scan a few lines to show why the meter is so named, and con¬ 
trast the rime and meter with those of "The Lady of the Lake ” 
and "Hiawatha.” 

Whittier’s Life and Work. John Greenleaf Whittier was born 
in 1807 and died in 1892. His life, therefore, covers the greater 
part of the nineteenth century, and was practically all spent in 
New England. He was brought up on a farm where there were 
few luxuries but much hard work, which, added to natural ability, 
finally gave him success. 

Whittier considered himself almost an old man when " Snow- 
Bound” was published, in 1866. He had lived through the Civil 
War, and in a long series of poems had spoken well for the cause 
of negro emancipation. He had seen that cause triumphant and 
his "winter idyl” recognized as a successful poem. He still 
wrote. By constant and wide reading he supplemented the nar¬ 
row education of his younger days, and his later poems show a 
wide range of subjects. He came to know many of the great men 
of his time, as Lowell, Bayard Taylor, Webster, Sumner, and 
Garrison. Still he remained a New England poet, and his best 
work is based on such scenes as are found in " Snow-Bound.” 

The authorized biography is Pickard’s " Life and Letters of 
Whittier.” Those who wish a shorter account will find an ex¬ 
cellent sketch prefixed to the Cambridge edition of the poems. 
See also G. R. Carpenter’s "Whittier,” in the American Men 
of Letters Series. 


II. LYRIC POETRY 


LYCIDAS 

Introduction. Into what three well-marked periods is Milton’s 
career divided ? Where does " Lycidas ” stand ? (See line 193.) 
What strong hint of the public career of Milton does " Lycidas ” 
contain? (See lines 108-132.) What hint of his ambition as a 
poet? (See lines 70-84.) 

In view of the variety of measure and the recognized harmony 
of the language employed in " Lycidas,” the pupil should read 
the elegy aloud until he becomes familiar with the pronuncia¬ 
tion of the words and the flow of the rhythm. To understand 
the poem is by no means enough; he should be led to feel it, 
to perceive that it is no mere academic exercise, to sympathize 
with the poet’s glowing fervor for a great cause, and to make a 
personal application of the noble closing note of consolation. 
Then he will be in a position to enjoy the most sympathetic 
reading of the poem the teacher can give. 

The Material. The occasion for the writing of the poem may 
be gathered from page 115. For what life work was Edward 
King intended ? Does that appear prominently in the poem ? 
(See lines 108-131, and Notes.) Where did Milton find the 
name Lycidas, and why did he apply it to his friend ? (See 
p. 116.) What passage refers particularly to his companion¬ 
ship with his friend at college ? (See lines 23-36.) In what tasks 
and enjoyments were they associated ? Can "the star that rose 
at evening bright ” mean Venus, or Hesperus, the evening star ? 
May not Milton have intended some other star, possibly the full 
Moon, — as when he called the Sun the day-star? (Compare 
the note on line 30 with that on line 168.) What passages deal 

237 


238 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


especially with the manner of King’s death? (See lines 50-55, 
88-102.) Observe how the sea has its complement of spirits, 
just as the land has in "Comus.” Note the special grief of 
Cambridge in lines 103-106. What is the "two-handed engine” 
of line 130 ? Why is " Alpheus ” addressed in line 132 ? Who 
is the " Angel ” of line 163 ? 

Construction and Style. Why does Milton speak of this elegy 
as a monody ? Why is it called pastoral poetry ? (See p. xxxi.) 
Why is it designated as a "Doric lay” in line 189? Mention 
lines in which proper names help the musical effect. Whence 
is the general metrical structure borrowed ? (See p. xxxii.) 
Compare it with other elegies often placed in the same class, 
— Shelley’s "Adonais” (see p. xxvi) and Tennyson’s "In 
Memoriam.” Is there any resemblance in form ? in sub¬ 
stance ? in spirit or temper ? Compare it with Matthew Arnold’s 
"Thyrsis.” 

For collateral reading, not of the same class, which will per¬ 
haps sufficiently show the names, merits, and spirit of Milton’s 
earlier contemporaries, pages 165-175 of Manly’s "English 
Poetry ” are recommended. The pages immediately following 
in the ♦same book contain several of the most important of Mil¬ 
ton’s early poems which must strongly appeal to any pupils 
who enjoy "Lycidas.” 

The following subjects are suggested for themes or discussions: 

1. The college life of Milton’s day. (See Masson’s " Life.”) 

2. Milton’s conception of fame and his aspiration after it. 

3. Milton as a patriot. 

Milton’s Life and Work. The pupil may write a connected 
account of Milton’s early manhood, using the encyclopedias, 
histories, etc., at his command. The first volume of Masson’s 
"Lifeof John Milton ” (referred to in the Introduction, p. li, and 
covering the years to about 1639) contains abundant material. 

In addition to the pages of Manly’s " English Poetry ” already 
specified, the pupil may consult Professor Schelling’s " Book of 
Seventeenth Century Lyrics,” a well-edited collection of poems 


"L’ALLEGRO” AND " IL PENSEROSO ” 239 

that show the development of lyrical skill in Milton’s time and 
a little later. The same editor’s " Elizabethan Lyrics ” contains 
verse a little earlier and doubtless influential upon Milton’s 
youth. For a suggestion of ancient poets that may be intro¬ 
duced to the pupil, see note on line 189. 

Some of these subjects may be used for themes or discussions: 

1. America in Milton’s early manhood. 

2. Milton’s puritanism. 

3. The breadth of Milton’s scholarship. 

4. Milton and Dryden. 

5. The life purpose of Milton. 

For further discussion of Milton’s life and work, see the Study 
of ''Paradise Lost,” Books I and II. 

" L’ALLEGRO” AND " IL PENSEROSO” 

Introduction. After sufficient reference to Milton’s early life 
to give some point to the fact that all the poems in this volume 
were probably written during his residence at Horton, the teacher 
should read these two lyrics to the class and have the pupils read 
them aloud until they become familiar with the rhythm. It is 
very important to remember that such work as mastering allu¬ 
sions should never be allowed to hinder pupils from seeing for 
themselves that the poems are like exquisite music which any 
one will be the richer for having in his mind. After the mean¬ 
ing has become clear, the pupils should pick out and learn what 
seem to be the most beautiful lines. 

The Lyrics. The two lyrics are so similar and supplement 
each other so thoroughly that the most obvious way of studying 
them is through comparison and contrast. (See p. xxiii.) 

Note the allegorical comparisons of Mirth and Melancholy. 
Do they express the emotions of two different persons, or of the 
same person in different moods ? Is it likely that Milton him¬ 
self entered into the one mood as perfectly as into the other ? 
Select the points of contrast between the two moods as respects 
the favorite time of day, society, music, the drama, etc. 


240 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


For Milton’s estimate of the dramatists Ben Jonson and Shake¬ 
speare, see pages 68, 69. To which of Shakespeare’s comedies 
could the designations "sweetest,” "Fancy’s child,” and "native 
wood-notes wild ” most fitly be applied ? Examine "As You 
Like It,” "The Tempest,” "A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” or 
"Cymbeline,” for woodland scenery, as well as for idealistic 
conditions, fairies, and spirits that might suggest "fancy.” 

Structure and Style. Mark the divisions of the poems and 
state the subjects of the divisions in parallel columns for com¬ 
parison. Why are the poems called " descriptive lyrics ” ? (See 
p. 43.) Was it an age for lyrics? (See Manly’s "English 
Poetry,” pp. 165-175.) Might the poems be called lyric idyls, 
bearing in mind the fact that idyl meant originally a little 
picture ? Discuss the metrical forms employed in the poems. 
Find instances of double rimes, passages of special harmony, 
places where the sound echoes to the sense, favorite pictures, 
and passages which present syntactical difficulties. 

Explain in " L’ Allegro,” line 10, "Cimmerian desert”; line 
29, "Hebe”; line 40, "unreproved”; line 45, "to come”; 
(Who or what is the subject of the infinitive?) line 67, "tells 
his tale ” ; line 80, " cynosure ” ; line 102, " Faery Mab ” ; line 
136, "Lydian airs.” 

Explain in "II Penseroso,” line 6, "fancies fond”; line 18, 
"Prince Memnon’s sister”; line 23, "Vesta”; line 55, "hist 
along”; line 74, "curfew”; line 88, "thrice great Hermes”; 
line 116, "great bards”; line 154, "genius”; line 159, "sto¬ 
ried windows.” 

The following subjects are suitable for themes or discussions: 

1. Milton’s attitude toward nature. (See p. xix.) 

2. Milton’s life at Horton. 

3. Milton’s abandonment of the ministry as a calling. 

4. Milton’s studies at Horton. 

5. Milton’s aspiration as a poet. 

6. Milton’s relations with his father. 

For a discussion of Milton’s life and work, see the Study of 
"Lycidas.” 


GRAY’S ELEGY 


241 


GRAY’S ELEGY 

Introduction. The teacher cannot afford to deprive pupils of 
the pure pleasure he can give them by a thoughtful oral reading 

— if possible without interruption — of this justly celebrated 
and very noble poem. This may well follow an extremely brief 
introduction. Then may come a rereading of the poem and a 
discussion of the best lines, and such questions and explana¬ 
tions as will prepare the class for the further pleasure of read¬ 
ing the poem carefully themselves and committing much of it 
to memory. 

Written shortly after "The Deserted Village,” the "Elegy” 
has more in common with later English poetry than Goldsmith’s 
poem. In many respects Gray anticipates the next generation 
of writers. He has genuine nature passages, is concrete in 
description and definite in suggestion. His poem is formal, per¬ 
haps, but is charged with real emotion; and he has, like Gold¬ 
smith, humanitarian feeling and democratic sympathies. As 
regards form, he substitutes for the popular heroic couplet 
the heroic quatrain, and, for the most part, individual for 
stock phrasing. In common with his age he likes to generalize 
and to moralize. He does not call to mind individual villagers 
buried in the churchyard, nor individual graves; his elegy, except 
at the close, if not even then, is general,— is an elegy over a 
type or a class. 

The "Elegy” may be compared with Milton’s " II Penseroso ” 

— a purely reflective poem—and his " Lycidas ” — an individual¬ 
ized elegy. Later elegies, also more purely personal, are Shelley’s 
"Adonais,” Arnold’s "Thyrsis,” and Tennyson’s "In Memo- 
riam.” Noteworthy in "churchyard” poetry before Gray is 
Blair’s "The Grave” (1743). Among American poems influ¬ 
enced by the popularity of the "Elegy” may be mentioned 
Freneau’s (1752-1832) "Eutaw Springs” and "The Indian 
Burying Ground,” and Bryant’s "The Knight’s Epitaph,” 
"Hymn to Death,” "Thanatopsis” (in some of its aspects), 
and many other pieces. 


242 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


The Material. Owing to the general nature of the poem, 
unless it is read very carefully, the impression left by it is likely 
to be somewhat vague. Yet it is in reality a series of sentiments 
on death oft thought before "but ne’er so well expressed,” to 
which Gray has added familiar and appropriate images from 
nature and life. The description of Stoke Poges (Appendix, 
pp. 61-64) testifies to the essential local accuracy of Gray’s 
descriptions. 

The following analysis shows the material as well as the 
structure and the sequence of thought: 

The Poet’s Personal Approach to his Theme 

1-12. Introduction, establishing the twilight setting and the atmos¬ 
phere or tone of the poem. 

13-28. The lowly graves in the churchyard. Reminiscences of 
those buried there. 


The Elegy Proper 

29-44. Meditations on the shortness and meagerness of the annals 
of the dead villagers. 

45-60. And on their restricted opportunities. 

61-76. The poet reflects that there are blessings as well as limita¬ 
tions in such a lot. 

77-92. He notes that even these humble people have their crude 
memorials; this in response to the universal craving to be remembered 
after death. 


The Poet’s Personal Close 

93-116. The poet imagines himself in the position of those over 
whom he meditates. He sketches a picture of himself as he might 
have appeared to a chance observer. 

116-128. He gives an epitaph, which, in his assumed character of 
the preceding stanzas, might suitably have been placed over his grave. 

Show the appropriateness of the time, the place, and the sur¬ 
roundings, to the thought expressed. Would the poem have 
had the same popularity had it dealt with high rather than 
lowly life ? How far is the popularity of the poem due to the 
universal interest of the theme ? 


GRAY’S ELEGY 


243 


Construction and Style. (See above and pp. 21-24.) What 
is the verse form ? Is it appropriate to the theme ? What is 
notable in # Gray’s handling of it ? Name other poems written 
in this verse form. Point out instances of the tendency to per¬ 
sonify abstract terms. Point out conventionalities of style, like 
the use of vague Latinized terms, or of stock phrases. Point 
out instances of fresh and individual phrasing. Comment on 
the fact that nearly all lines are " end-stopt ” and therefore 
contain ideas of convenient and nearly uniform length. Com¬ 
pare the poem in this respect with the heroic couplet of Pope 
and Goldsmith and the blank verse of " Paradise Lost ” and 
" Hamlet.” Note memorable lines. Does there seem to be a 
large number of familiar quotations in the poem ? What does 
that signify? Compare "Hamlet” in respect to familiar quo¬ 
tations. Can you re-word any passage for the better? Can 
you suggest why Gray’s original line and stanza, 

Some village Cato, etc., 

is or is not preferable to the present reading, 

Some village Hampden, etc.? 

Additional topics for discussion or themes are: 

1. The love of nature shown in the "Elegy.” 

2. A comparison of the descriptions with those in " The Deserted 
Village.” 

3. In what stanzas does Gray follow contemporary modes? In 
what does he break away? 

Gray’s Life and Work. (See Introduction, pp. 17-21.) To 
whom did Gray owe his bringing up and his support at school ? 
Where did he travel? Describe his life at Cambridge. What 
did he write besides the " Elegy” ? Explain the scantiness of his 
literary production. (See Matthew Arnold’s essay on him.) What 
other possible explanation can you offer? Describe Gray the 
man, and the impression he made on his contemporaries. 

In addition to the life by Dr. Samuel Johnson, in his " Lives 
of the Poets,” — one of the worst in that series, — and Gosse’s, 


244 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


in the English Men of Letters Series, other easily accessible 
books and essays on Gray are referred to in the Bibliographical 
Note, page 25. At least two or three of his letters should be 
read in class. 

" THE RAVEN ” AND OTHER SELECTIONS FROM POE 

Introduction. Both Poe and his writings present so many 
peculiar and exceptional features that the study of this work 
must be approached with more than usual care. (See Preface and 
p. xii.) It must be remembered that many important character¬ 
istics of Poe’s writings are explained by his temperamental pe¬ 
culiarities. (See pp. xviii-xix, xxi-xxii.) Another fundamental 
thing to remember is that Poe was a critic as well as a poet 
and story-writer; in fact, each of these phases of his genius 
influenced the others. He had very definite and original theories 
of the nature of true poetry and the way a short story should 
be written. (See pp. xxii-xxiii, xxv-xxvi.) In both cases he at¬ 
tained with marvelous skill the qualities and results which, as a 
critic, he held to be admirable in these forms of literary art. 

In studying Poe much depends upon circumstances, especially 
the age and advancement of the students, the extent of their 
previous acquaintance with Poe, and their attitude in beginning 
the reading. As a rule, however, it wall be best to leave the 
Introduction until there has been a first reading of a number of 
the poems and several of the stories. As this work proceeds, 
skillful questions will lead the pupils to note the distinctive quali¬ 
ties. In each case, at the conclusion of the preliminary reading, 
the student might be asked to write a short account of these 
peculiar characteristics, depending upon his reading and the 
classroom discussion. The papers may be preserved and the 
results compared with the critical comments of the editor in 
the Introduction (pp. xxii-xxix) and in the Notes. 

In a second and more careful reading, both the poetry and 
the short stories should be examined with a view to seeing 
whether the author applied his critical theories to his own 


SELECTIONS FROM POE 


245 


writings. Properly managed, this will prove a very mteresting 
exercise. The Notes (including numerous questions) on the 
separate poems and tales will furnish many suggestions. 

The Poems. Most of the author’s poetic productions worth 
knowing, and nearly all that will interest the young student, are 
included in the Standard English Classics edition. The Notes 
contain questions and suggestions for study. The student should 
observe the circumstances of each poem, note the effect produced 
by each poem, and make some brief analyses of characteristic 
methods of Poe, as his use of the refrain, of recurrent rimes 
and words, of alliteration, of phrases purposely made vague and 
symbolic, — all of which are well illustrated in " The Raven,” 
"Ulalume,” "Annabel Lee,” and other poems. 

The Raven. Where and when was the poem first published? 
What confidence have you in the account of its composition 
given by Poe in " The Philosophy of Composition ” ? Point out 
instances of alliteration. Explain line 47, " Plutonian ” ; line 82, 
"nepenthe”; line 93, "Aidenn.” Point out lines that seem 
obscure. Discuss the meter employed. 

The following subjects may be used for themes or discus¬ 
sions : 

1. Reasons for the popularity of the poem. 

•2. Why is it so effective for purposes of recitation ? 

3. What do you know about ravens, particularly in literature? 

4. Do you discover any moral in " The Raven” ? 

The Stories. In the field of the short story Poe was not only 
a master workman who profoundly influenced other writers ; he 
marks an epoch in the history of that literary form. A good 
statement on this point is to be found in Canby, " The Short 
Story in English,” chapter xi. The stories given in the Standard 
English Classics edition include all the types of Poe’s work ex¬ 
cept the "prose poem” and the tales intended to be humorous, 
satirical, or grotesque. Of the last-named class, " The System of 
Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether ” might be read as the least 
unsatisfactory. Some of the best stories of the other types are 


246 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


mentioned in the Introduction (pp. xxvii-xxviii). Other stories 
that may prove interesting, and are worth reading, are "The 
Pit and the Pendulum ” and "The Imp of the Perverse.” Sug¬ 
gestive questions for the study of several of the stories will be 
found in the Notes. 

Students who like the pseudo-scientific tales should read 
some of the numerous works of Jules Verne. The stories of 
double personality may well be supplemented by Stevenson’s 
strong study of " Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.” In connection with 
the tales of fear, horror, and morbid psychology may be read 
"Tales of Soldiers and Civilians,” by Ambrose Bierce, and some 
of Guy de Maupassant’s stories. Similar to the "prose poems ” 
are many of the sketches in "Pastels in Prose,” translated from 
the French by Stuart Merrill. Fitz-James O’Brien’s stories, espe¬ 
cially remarkable for their ingenuity, are suggestive in many 
respects of Poe’s. Nothing in Poe’s work is likely to be of more 
interest to the high-school student than his detective stories of 
analytical reasoning. This interest should certainly be stimulated 
by an introduction to Conan Doyle’s famous detective in the 
"Adventures of Sherlock Holmes,” "The Sign of the Four,” 
"A Study in Scarlet,” and " Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes.” It 
will prove both interesting and profitable to compare the stories 
of Poe and Doyle, especially as to skill in construction, style, 
dialogue, character-drawing, personal interests and peculiarities 
of the hero. For instance, compare in some detail Doyle’s 
"Scandal in Bohemia” with Poe’s "Purloined Letter.” 

Poe’s Life and Work. Outline briefly the events of Poe’s life. 
What personal characteristics were probably fostered by the 
conditions of his boyhood ? (See pp. xi-xii.) Does it seem likely 
that the poverty of his mature years influenced his character ? 
Are there any characteristics of his literary work that can be 
wholly or partly explained by events or conditions in his life ? 

Mary Newton Stanard’s " Dreamer ” (Bell Book Company, 
Richmond, 1909) is a very interesting and helpful study, being 
a romantic rendering of Poe’s life story. Poe’s life and work have 
been the subject of much literary controversy; a good general 


SELECTIONS FROM POE 


247 


statement is to be found in J. M. Robertson’s "New Essays 
toward a Critical Method.” G. E. Woodberry’s life of Poe in 
the American Men of Letters Series is convenient for the facts 
of the biography. See also the same writer’s fuller " Life ” in 
two volumes and the biography and volume of correspondence 
prepared by the late Professor James A. Harrison. The two 
chief editions of Poe’s works are the "Virginia,” edited by Pro¬ 
fessor Harrison, and that edited by Mr. Woodberry and the late 
Edmund Clarence Stedman. 


GROUP VI 


EXPOSITORY AND ARGUMENTATIVE PROSE 

BURKE’S CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES 

(With References to his "American Taxation ” and his 
"Letter to a Noble Lord”) 

Introduction. Burke’s speech on " Conciliation with the Colo¬ 
nies ” expresses the final appeal of the English friends of the 
American colonies to the House of Commons, the popular 
branch of the English Parliament which corresponds to the 
House of Representatives of the United States Congress. 

The great principle that influenced all Burke’s thoughts and 
acts was expediency, the desire to do whatever was just and 
generous and practical under the circumstances. (See C. C., 1 
pp. xlii-xliii, xlv.) He hoped to persuade England to treat her 
American colonies fairly, chiefly because they were English and 
because it was for the permanent advantage of England to do 
so. He sought to avoid ill-feeling, not only because of the in¬ 
justice to the Americans, but also because of the debasing effect 
of such unjust measures on the English themselves. 

The best preparation for a study of the "Conciliation” is a care¬ 
ful reading of "American Taxation.” This earlier speech (see 
A. T., 1 pp. xxi-xxii) shows how the quarrel with the Americans 
was due to the vacillating colonial policy of the English Parlia¬ 
ment. But this first speech did not succeed in convincing the 
party in power of their mistakes. They continued to treat the 
Americans arbitrarily, as if they were spoiled children requiring 

1 C. C.= ”Conciliation with the Colonies”; A. T.= ”American Taxa¬ 
tion ”; both in the Standard English Classics edition. 

248 


CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES 


249 


punishment. As a last effort, Burke in " Conciliation ” attempted 
to show Parliament that because of the conditions in the colo¬ 
nies and the character of the colonists, the only sane course was 
to meet them halfway in the dispute. 

Both speeches should be read rapidly in succession. Notice 
the confidence of the first speech and the hope of the second. 
The first is full of sarcasm and character sketches; the second 
is full of political wisdom and foresight. An appreciation of 
these speeches requires an acquaintance with the main facts of 
the American Revolution. The most popular summary of the 
causes of the Revolution is the Declaration of Independence. 

The American side of the question is well presented in John 
Fiske’s "American Revolution,” and the English side may be 
easily learned from Green’s " Short History of the English Peo¬ 
ple ” (chap, x) or Lecky’s " England in the Eighteenth Century ” 
(chap. xi). See also Trevelyan’s "American Revolution.” 

Brief and interesting reports may be made to the class on 

1. An outline of the events preceding the Revolution. 

2. The story of the Revolution. 

3. Why did the Americans revolt? 

4. Why did England refuse the American demands ? 

5. How did England treat the Americans after the Revolution ? 

A very interesting topic for discussion in class is, "Was 
Burke disloyal in not supporting his country against the Ameri¬ 
cans ? ” This includes the broader questions,—" Shall the minority 
be governed by the majority? Is a citizen ever justified in 
opposing his own country during strife with another country?” 

Occasion and Setting. The speech on "Conciliation” was 
delivered on March 22, 1775, before the House of Commons, 
at that time composed of more than five hundred members. 
(The enthusiastic student may properly look up such topics as,— 
the way in which members of Parliament are elected; the rela¬ 
tion of the House of Lords to the House of Commons; a com¬ 
parison of our Congress with Parliament; the present Houses 
of Parliament; and the comparative powers of the Speaker of 
the House of Commons and the Speaker of our House of 


250 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Representatives.) The membership of the Commons is generally 
divided into two parties, called in Burke’s time the Whigs and 
the Tories, but now known as the Liberals and the Conserva¬ 
tives. Whichever party has the majority is known as the "Gov¬ 
ernment,” from which the ministers corresponding to our cabinet 
officers are appointed. The minority is known as the " Opposi¬ 
tion.” Except for a few brief periods, Burke belonged to the 
Opposition. The party in power occupies the rows of seats on 
the right of the Speaker, the Opposition those on his left. 

At the time this speech was delivered Lord North was Sec¬ 
retary of the Treasury, the leading minister, and almost com¬ 
pletely under the influence of King George the Third. The 
king sought to be more than a royal figurehead; he desired to 
control all the affairs of the nation. He had filled the Commons 
with many members, who by bribes, either of actual money or 
of lucrative offices, voted as he directed. Students who expect 
to study law and are interested in legislative affairs should read 
Burke’s " Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents ” 
(see A. T., p. xxiii) to see how widespread was the legislative 
influence of the king. The minister controlled so strong a ma¬ 
jority that any motion of the Opposition was almost sure to be 
voted down. (See A. T., p. xx.) 

For the political conditions of the time, see C. C., pp. xii-xix, 
and A. T., pp. xviii-xxi. 

The Argument and the Incidents. The speech is divided into 
four parts : (i) the introduction; (2) why England ought to make 
concessions; (3) what the measures of concession should be; 
(4) the conclusion. 

The introduction arouses the interest of the listeners, and like 
the whole speech is conciliatory in tone. 

To what common sentiment does he appeal in the first paragraph? 
What apology does he make for offering his plan ? How was his 
plan helped by the earlier consideration of Lord North’s plan? (See 
pp. 8-9.) Why did he postpone until the end of his speech (see 
pp. 64-69) his own opinion of this plan ? What knowledge of pre¬ 
vious speeches does Burke assume in his introduction ? 


CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES 


251 


The second section explains why England should be concilia¬ 
tory. Burke gives three main reasons: the peculiar nature and 
circumstances of the colonies; the futility of force; and the 
temper and character of the colonists. 

What was the population of the colonies? Why is the export 
trade to the colonies, rather than the import trade from them, taken 
as the true basis of their commercial value? How had England 
sought to regulate the colonial commerce? (See A. T., pp. xviii-xxi, 
2 5—59.) Notice the care with which he quotes his authorities. (See 
C. C., pp. n-12.) What, in the main, does England import to-day 
from the United States? Where are our largest fishing fleets? 

What four reasons does he give against the use of force? How 
had their English descent affected the character of the colonists? 
What was the form of their local governments? (See p. 21.) How 
did the religion of the Northern colonies and the slavery of the 
Southern colonies produce the same effect? Why are lawyers apt 
to be politicians? Was Burke competent to speak of the effect of 
the study of law upon a man’s character? (C. C., p. xxi, and A. T., 
pp. ix-x.) 

What three ways of treating the colonies does Burke enumerate ? 
Which way was finally followed ? Why did he not consider this way ? 

Notice the care with which he goes, point by point, over the pos¬ 
sible objections to his reasons why the circumstances and the char¬ 
acter of the colonists required conciliation. Did he think England 
could restrict the population of the colonies? What unanswerable 
argument did he use to show that England ought not to destroy 
America’s commerce ? Why did he spend so much time on the treat¬ 
ment of the slaves when he so rapidly commented on the other five 
reasons for the peculiar character of the colonists? (The attitude of 
England toward the colonies may be compared with her attitude 
toward the United States in the War of 1812 and in the Civil War.) 

Burke’s sense of justice revolted against treating the colo¬ 
nists as criminals. He pointed out that crime is a term used for 
individuals, but not for nations. What is his definition of an 
empire ? This idea of government he has developed much more 
fully in his "Reflections on the Revolution in France.” 

The third section of the speech deals with the nature of the 
concession, the means of conciliation. He did not at first say 


252 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


what these should be, except in general terms that they should 
satisfy the colonists by admitting them into an interest in the 
"Constitution.” What is meant by the English Constitution ? 

Burke’s desire for action rather than for debate made him 
avoid any discussion of taxation. He gives an instance of how 
fruitless such discussion is. (See pp. 39-41.) 

Burke’s method of conciliation is based on English experience. 
How did England conquer Ireland? During his time Ireland had a 
separate Parliament that met in Dublin. Some pupil should write a 
report on this. (See C. C., p. 124, and Lecky, chap, xvi.) How did 
the former condition of Wales, Chester, and Durham resemble that 
of the colonies? 

State briefly the substance of his six resolutions. How did he 
prove the efficiency of the colonial assemblies? Why was it neces¬ 
sary to add three other resolutions? How are they subordinate to 
the main ones ? 

The fourth section of the speech is the conclusion. Burke 
first answers the possible objections to his plan, dwelling at 
great length on the proposals of Lord North. What is the sig¬ 
nificance of his Latin phrase Experimentum in corpore vili 1 
(See p. 65.) Why is it a good principle? 

He closes with an eloquent appeal to the common interests 
of the colonists and the English. 

Construction and Style. This speech is a model example of 
exposition and argument. It explains the conditions of the col¬ 
onies and states the resolutions. It includes both kinds of argu¬ 
ment,— persuasion and conviction. The argument that force 
should not be used is an instance of conviction; its conclusions 
would be accepted by any reasonable thinker. The conclusion 
(pp. 71-74) is persuasion, — an appeal to the heart as well as to 
the head. Sometimes Burke followed the deductive method of 
argument, stating a general principle first and then proving it 
by details. (See p. 17, line 22, to p. 18, line 34.) At other times 
he used the inductive method, giving the details first and then 
drawing the conclusion from them. (See p. 28, line 13, to p. 36, 
line 18.) 


CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES 253 


The speech shows signs of careful preparation; it may have 
been written out — at least in outline — before it was delivered. 
In this respect it differs from "American Taxation,” which, 
though carefully thought out, was probably extemporaneous in 
delivery. Notice the Preface of "American Taxation,” page 3 ; 
no such explanation is given for " Conciliation.” 

In order to appreciate the construction, the pupil may fill in 
the partial outline of a brief given in the Introduction. (See 
pp. lv ff. of the latest edition.) Some teachers may find the 
following outline convenient in giving pupils additional assist¬ 
ance. Certainly the speech repays the most careful analysis. 

Introduction 

I. The return of the "grand penal bill ” gives a fresh opportunity 

to choose a plan for dealing with America. (P. 3, lines 1-25.) 

II. The subject is a most serious one. (P. 4, line 1.) 

A. Since it was the most important matter before Parliament 
when Burke took his seat, he was at more than common 
pains to instruct himself in regard to it. (P. 4, lines 2-19.) 

B. He has held to his original sentiments in regard to it. 
(P. 4, lines 20-27.) 

C. Parliament has frequently changed its sentiments and 
policy. (P. 4, lines 28-31.) 

D. Each remedy has been followed by a heightening of the 
distemper. (P. 4, line 32, to p. 5, line 8.) 

III. It is evident that those who are opposing the action of the gov- 
• ernment must present a definite policy. (P. 5, lines 9-32.) 

A. Burke, on account of his insignificance, is reluctant to sug¬ 
gest a plan. (P. 5, line 33, to p. 6, line 13.) 

B. Yet the situation is so grave that he must embrace the 
slightest chance of doing good. (P. 6 , lines 14-25*) 

C. And his insignificance will make it possible for his plan to 
be discussed wholly on its merits. (P. 6, line 26, to p. 7, 
line 9.) 

IV. Burke’s proposition is to secure peace by removing the grounds 

of difference. (P. 7, lines 10-25.) 

V. This simple plan, though it has none of the splendor of Lord 

North’s project, and does not propose an auction of finance, 


254 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


derives advantage from the proposition and registry of Lord 
North’s project (p. 7, line 26, to p. 8, line 15); for 

A. The House, in accepting Lord North’s resolution, has voted 
that conciliation is admissible. (P. 8, lines 16-20.) 

B. The House has gone farther and admitted that complaints 
in regard to taxation are not wholly unfounded. (P. 8, 
lines 21-32.) 

C. Though Burke’s plan differs from Lord North’s in regard 
to the means, it is based upon the same principle of peace 
and reconciliation. (P. 8, line 33, to p. 9, line 4.) 

VI. The proposal for peace ought to come from England (p. 9, 
lines 8, 9); for 

A. One side or the other must concede. (P. 9, lines 6, 7.) 

B. England, as the superior power, may offer peace with 
honor and safety. (P. 9, lines 10-18.) 

VII. There are two leading questions to consider (p. 9, line 19): 

A. Whether England ought to concede. (P. 9, line 20.) 

B. What the concession should be. (P. 9, line 21.) 

VIII. The determination of both these questions depends, not upon 
abstract ideas and general theories, but upon the nature and 
circumstances of America. (P. 9, line 22, to p. 10, line 4.) 

Brief Proper 

England should secure peace by conciliation, because 
I. The condition of America requires this method; for 

A. The population of America is too large to be trifled with. 
(P. 10, line 5, to p. 11, line 7.) 

B. The commerce of the colonies is greater in proportion than 
the numbers of the people. (P. 11, line 8, to p. 15, line 19.) 

C. Their agriculture now enables them to feed the Old World. 
(P. 16, lines 1—13.) 

D. Their fisheries have extended over the whole world. (P. 16, 
line 14, to p. 17, line 21.) 

II. ( Refutation .) The argument that we should use force because 
America is worth fighting for is untenable (p. 17, line 22, to 
p. 18, line 3); for 

A. Force is temporary. (P. 18, lines 4-7.) 

B. It is uncertain. (P. 18, lines 8-14.) 

C. It impairs the object. (P. 18, lines 15-27.) 

D. We have no experience in favor of force. (P. 18, lines 28-34.) 


CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES 255 

• 

III. The temper and character of the Americans make it necessary 
for us to conciliate them (p. 19, lines 1-9); for 

A. The spirit of liberty is stronger among them than among 
any other people on earth. (P. 19, line 10, to p. 25, line 12.) 

IV. ( Refutation .) Coercion has been found unwise. (P. 25, line 24, 
to p. 28, line 12.) 

V. Of the three possible methods of dealing with America, — re¬ 
moving the causes of the love of freedom, prosecuting it as 
criminal, and complying with it as necessary, —the last is the 
only one possible (p. 28, lines 13-30); for 

A. It is difficult to remove the causes (p. 28, line 31, to p. 29, 
line 2); for 

1. It is hard to remove the conditions which exist in 
America. (P. 29, line 3, to p. 31, line 9.) 

2. It is impossible to alter the temper and character of the 
colonists. (P. 31, line 10, to p. 33, line 3.) 

B. It is impolitic to prosecute the spirit as criminal. (P. 33, 
line 4, to p. 36, line 11.) 

C. Since the causes of the spirit of liberty cannot be removed, 
and since it is impracticable to prosecute the spirit as 
criminal, England should comply and satisfy the complaint 
of the colonies that they are taxed without representation 
(p. 36, lines 12-18); for 

1. To please a people you must give them what they ask 
for. (P. 36, lines 19-31.) 

2. (Refutation?) The argument that England has a legal 
right to tax is irrelevant. (P. 36, line 32, to p. 38, line 18.) 

3. (Refutation?) The argument that a repeal of the reve¬ 
nue laws would lead to a repeal of the trade laws is 
unsound. (P. 39, line 1, to p. 41, line 11.) 

4. (Refutation?) The argument that concession on the 
part of England will lead to further demands on the 
part of the colonists is unsound. (P. 41, lines 12-27.) 

5. Concession is in accordance with the genius of the 
English constitution (p. 41, line 28, to p. 42, line 13); for 
a. It has been successfully tried in four cases. (P. 42, 

line 14, to p. 48, line 3.) 

6. These precedents apply to America (p. 48, lines 4-7); 
for 

a. The conditions are almost identical. (P. 48, lines 
8-31.) 



256 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


7. Although on account of the distance of the colonies it 
is impossible to give them representation in Parliament, 
yet there is a plan which will give almost complete satis¬ 
faction both to them and to England (p. 48, line 32, to 

р. 49, line 14); for 

a. The plan of having Parliament stop imposing taxes 
and of giving the colonies the right to grant money 
will help to give satisfaction (p. 49, line 15, to p. 52, 
line 2); [Here are inserted from time to time the 
resolutions which express in formal terms the ideas 
already presented.] for 

i. ( Refutation .) The argument that their grievances 
are not real is unsound. (P. 52, line 3, to p. 53, 
line 4.) 

ii. The competence of the colonial assemblies to grant 
is certain. (P. 53, line 20, to p. 54, line 7.) 

iii. The colonial assemblies have been generous in 
their grants (p. 54, lines 8-14); for 

y. Their generosity has been frequently acknowl¬ 
edged by Parliament. (P. 54, line 15, to p. 56, 
line 2.) 

z. ( Refutation .) The miserable stories that Amer¬ 
ica has not borne her share of the burden are 
unfounded. (P. 56, lines 3-28.) 

iv. The revenue by grant has been more productive 
than the revenue by imposition. (P. 56, line 29, to 
p. 57, line 28.) 

b. The repeal of the penal laws will help to give satis¬ 
faction. (P. 57, line 29, to p. 59, line 34.) 

с. Securing to the colonies a fair and unbiased judi¬ 
cature will help to give satisfaction. (P. 60, lines 
I- 33 -) 

d. (Refutation .) The argument that the grievance in 
regard to taxation logically extends to all legislation 
is unsound. (P. 61, line 9, to p. 63, line 34.) 

e. ( Refutation .) The argument that the power of 
granting, if vested in American assemblies, would 
dissolve the unity of the empire is unsound. (P. 64, 
lines 1-22.) 

f. Burke’s plan will be more satisfactory than Lord 
North’s. (P. 64, line 23, to p. 68, line 27.) 


CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES 


257 


g. ( Refutation .) The argument that Burke’s plan will 
furnish no revenue has little weight. (P. 69, lines 
17, 18.) 

h. As a matter of fact our experience with India shows 
that America is too remote to be taxed. (P. 71, 
lines 7-28.) 

8. England will be best served by winning the loyalty and 
affection of her colonies. (P. 71, line 29, to p. 74, line 10.) 

Burke carefully indicated the four great divisions : (1) Intro¬ 
duction, to page 9 ; (2) the need of conciliation, to page 36; 
(3) the manner of conciliation, to page 61; and (4) the conclusion. 

The introduction of a speech should arouse the interest of 
the hearers. Burke does this by appealing to superstition, which 
is common to all men. The idea is repeated again and again, 
by such phrases as "human frailty,” "anxiety,” "fortunate 
omen,” "providential favor,” "uncertain,” "superior warning 
voice.” 

In the same way a speech should close with a spirited appeal 
to a man’s sentiment, so that he will remember the subject with 
enthusiasm. Notice how Burke recalls their "kindred blood” 
(p. 71, line 32), and his repeated references to "liberty,” "tem¬ 
ple,” "freedom,” "spirit,” "love,” "temple of Peace,” — all 
soul-stirring terms. 

Take up for study portions of the speech, if not all of it, 
paragraph by paragraph, being on the watch for hints of the 
relation of each paragraph to the preceding and the succeeding 
ones. For instance, take the paragraph from page 10, lines 5- 
25. "The first thing ”: this suggests that there are other things 
or reasons to follow. Look ahead for them. A second is stated 
in page 11, line 11; a third in page 16, line 1; and a fourth in 
page 16, line 15. Returning to the first paragraph (p. 10, lines 
5-25), ask yourself what is the subject of it. This is stated in 
the opening sentence, — "the number of people in the colonies.” 
To show that this is the subject, see if there is any sentence in 
the paragraph that does not refer to it either by way of expla¬ 
nation or argument. What then is said of the population ? " two 



258 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


millions of inhabitants . . . population shoots . . . millions more 
to manage.” These terms all refer to the size and the growth of 
the population. Does Burke think two millions a large number ? 
(See p. 11, line 8.) When a student has summed up a para¬ 
graph in a sentence, let him write this key sentence on the 
blackboard, so that it may be later modified to fit into the key 
sentences of the other paragraphs. Such analysis furnishes a 
useful mental drill. 

The whole speech may be summed up in the sentence, " The 
circumstances of the colonists demand conciliation by admission 
into a share of the English Constitution.” When a speech may 
be thus summed up, when its separate divisions and its para¬ 
graphs may be expressed in key sentences, it is said to possess 
unity. 

In many writers we find unity in paragraphs, but the para¬ 
graphs are not connected with each other. Such a speech does 
not hang together, is not coherent. Burke secured coherence 
not merely by the interdependent relation of his ideas, but by 
using many linking words and phrases. Some word or phrase 
in the opening of a paragraph cannot be understood without 
referring to the preceding paragraph. As soon as a paragraph 
is read, ask, "How is this connected with the preceding?” 
For instance, the opening sentence, page 4, line 1, of the second 
paragraph cannot be understood without going back for an ante¬ 
cedent of it. So on page 4, line 20, "At that period ”; page 4, 
line 29, "during this interval ”; page 5, line 9, "in this posture.” 

The third great principle of composition is order,—the arrange¬ 
ment of ideas in a naturally progressive order. If the expected 
order of cause and effect, of reasons and conclusion, is altered, 
find out the reason why. Notice the natural order in the discus¬ 
sion of the temper and character of the colonists (p. 19, line 10, to 
p. 25, line 23) from the hereditary cause to the physical barrier 
of the ocean. Again, Burke was careful not to discuss the use 
of force until he had first proved that the colonies were valuable. 
He likewise does not criticize North’s plan until he has shown 
his own better plan. 


CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES 


259 


Burke’s style includes almost every known element of style 
except that of humor. He sometimes manages to raise a laugh, 
but it is always forced. (See A. T., pp. 8—9.) His prose is 
full of poetry. (See p. 16, lines 14 ff., and p. 70, lines 10-16.) 
Notice his use of the poetic figure of alliteration in page 7, 
lines 10-25. 

Certain of his characteristics are very prominent: (1) His hu¬ 
mility ; note "indulgence towards human frailty ” (p. 3, line 3); 
"hopes and fears ” (p. 3, line 5); "full of anxiety ” (p. 3, line 6); 
see also note on A. T., page 5, line 9. 

(2) His use of quotations: ( a ) from the classics. (See C. C., 
pp. liii-liv.) Would an orator of to-day be justified in using so 
many Latin quotations ? 

( b ) From the Bible. (See p. liii.) 

( c ) From other authors, such as Milton and Shakespeare. 
From these determine the quantity and quality of his reading. 
(See pp. liii-liv.) Note how closely such quotations are inter¬ 
woven into his sentences; they are a part of his own language, 
not isolated gems. 

(3) His use of concrete words for vividness. (See p. li.) Note 
"shoots,” page 10, line 17 ; page 16; and page 24, lines 17 ff. 
In this connection notice how wisely, after giving a series of 
statistics about the American trade, he relieves his hearers by 
the long paragraph (p. 13, lines 31 ff.) on Lord Bathurst, to 
show that this great expansion of commerce has taken place 
within one man’s lifetime. The best way to show the height 
of a monument or building is to have a man stand by it when 
it is photographed. Note, under this head, his very concrete 
paragraph on government at a distance. 

(4) His aphorisms, the records of experience expressed in 
quotable sentences, such as page 6, lines 7-9, 22-25. If a 
student will make a list of these, he will better appreciate the 
extent and variety of Burke’s wisdom. 

Although this study of Burke’s language will increase our 
appreciation of his style, we must not think that we have solved 
its mystery. (See p. lv, middle paragraph.) 


26o 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Questions such as the following undoubtedly will bring out 
other instances of the author’s characteristic style: 

What figure of speech is used in "the Chair" (p. 3, line 2)? "its 
flight" (p. 3, line 16)? In what sense does Burke use "event" 
(P- 3 ? line 7 )? 

Note the balanced construction of "questionable . . . nature," "un¬ 
certain . . . issue." (P. 3, lines 14-15.) 

Note the different religious spirit of the phrases "providential 
favor . . . fortunate omen." (P. 3, lines 11, 12.) 

Note the antithesis of "little " and "great." (P. 4, line 5.) 

On page 5 find a figure taken from card playing. 

Why does Burke use five adjectives to qualify "system "? (P. 10, 
lines 29-30.) 

Compare " If fighting a people be the best way of gaining them " 
(p. 17, line 26) with what he might have said, — " If fighting a people 
be the best way to gain them." 

What classical allusion is there in " wield the thunder of the state " ? 
(P. 17, line 30.) 

What is meant by "their governments are popular "? (P. 21, lines 
6-7.) Mention other meanings of the word "popular." 

He sometimes develops a figure of speech very thoroughly. (See 
p. 42, lines 26-28.) 

What did Burke know of " electric force ”? (P. 48, line 22.) Have 
some pupil make a report on Franklin’s electrical experiments. 

. Some questions arise that will require a consideration of the 
whole speech to determine Burke’s method. In such cases 
divide the speech into as many equal parts as there are students 
in the class, and let each student examine one part. The follow¬ 
ing may be answered quickly and satisfactorily in this manner: 

What words does Burke use with meanings not now common? 
Consult the Notes and the best dictionary available, — if possible, 
Murray’s. 

Balanced phrases and sentences are a characteristic of the eight¬ 
eenth-century writers. Find the instances of balance in this speech. 

Why is alliteration used in prose? (See p. 3, line 25, and else¬ 
where through the speech.) 

How often does Burke use antithesis? 

Does Burke use the indefinite article an as we now do ? 


CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES 261 


Does he use the relative pronouns as we now do ? 

Does he ever use the subjunctive mood ? 

Does he use "shall ” and "will ” as we now do? • 

How does he use verbals in -ing? 

Does he often use exclamations ? What danger is there in using 
too many? 

Does he ever end a sentence with a preposition ? 

Notice how frequently he uses questions (1) to introduce his own 
comments, and (2) to suggest answers that every one will think of. 

Burke’s Life and Work. The best short account of the life 
of Burke is found in the "Dictionary of National Biography”; 
longer and more satisfactory accounts are John Morley’s in 
the English Men of Letters Series, and Prior’s, the standard 
life. Much information upon contemporary life may be found 
in Boswell’s "Life of Samuel Johnson.” (See the Index.) Ma¬ 
caulay has summarized much of this in his two essays on 
"Johnson.” See also Lecky’s "England in the Eighteenth Cen¬ 
tury,” chap. v. 

Goldsmith’s political satire, "Retaliation,” is an interesting 
comment on Burke’s early public life and his associates in poli¬ 
tics. The novel about Goldsmith, called " The Jessamy Bride,” by 
F. F. Moore, and Thackeray’s lecture on "Goldsmith ” not only 
picture the life of one of Burke’s intimate friends, but also 
throw light on the manners of the times. The court life of the 
period is referred to in Thackeray’s lecture on "George the 
Third.” Sheridan’s plays, "The Rivals ” and " School for Scan¬ 
dal,” acquaint us with the fashionable life of the time, especially 
at Bath where Burke often went. Crabbe’s poem, "The News¬ 
paper,” shows what sort of public criticism Burke suffered. 
(See L. N. L., 1 p. 21.) Dickens’s " Bamaby Rudge ” is a story 
of the Lord George Gordon Riots of 1780, and pictures the in¬ 
tense feeling against the Roman Catholics, which Burke sought 
to allay. Macaulay’s "Warren Hastings” is devoted to one of 
the most important interests of Burke’s public life. (See L. N. L., 
P . 20.) 

1 "Letter to a Noble Lord,” Standard English Classics edition. 


262 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Good topics for short reports based on these books of refer¬ 
ence are the following: 

1. The education of English lawyers. 

2. Irishmen who have become famous in English literature. 

3. Burke’s charities. 

4. Burke’s association with Sir Joshua Reynolds. 

5. His writings on art. (See A. T., pp. x-xi; L. N. L., pp. xiii- 
xiv.) 

6. Why was Burke suspected of being the author of the "Junius 
Letters ” ? 

7. The English rule in India. 

8. Burke as a public speaker. 

9. Should a member of Parliament be guided by the opinions of 
his constituents ? 

10. Was Burke inconsistent in supporting the American Revolu¬ 
tion and in opposing the French Revolution ? 

Burke has given a thorough review of his own life in "A 
Letter to a Noble Lord,” but it involves so many references to 
contemporary events that a student should first read the ac¬ 
counts given in the Introductions of" Conciliation ” or "American 
Taxation,” or of this "Letter.” 

The main features of his life may be emphasized by such 
questions as the following: 

Why did Burke leave Ireland? 

What family circumstances made him tolerant of all religions ? 

How did his connection with Roman Catholics harm him in his 
public life? 

How did he manage to earn his living after he gave up the study 
of law ? 

What was the motto of his life ? 

Why is the style of his "Vindication of Natural Society’’ con¬ 
sidered remarkable ? 

Who were his chief political associates ? 

How was he regarded by his political contemporaries? 

Who were his chief literary associates ? 

What political positions did he hold early in life ? 

What was the most important office he held ? 

What did he do for his native country ? 


WASHINGTON’S FAREWELL ADDRESS 263 

Why was he so much interested in America? 

What is his most important pamphlet on politics ? 

Is Goldsmith’s criticism of Burke in "Retaliation” justified? 

How did Burke become interested in India? 

What did he actually accomplish by his long prosecution of 
Hastings ? 

In what way was Burke a prophet of the French Revolution? 
What important government reforms did he accomplish ? 

How did they show his unselfishness? 


WASHINGTON’S " FAREW 4 ELL ADDRESS” AND 
WEBSTER’S "FIRST BUNKER HILL ORATION” 

Introduction. Washington’s " Farewell Address ” and Web¬ 
ster’s " First Bunker Hill Oration,” which together have been 
included in the college-entrance requirements as an alternative 
for Burke’s "Conciliation,” may be called essays. However, 
only the "Farewell Address” is in any strict sense an essay. 
It belongs to the class of political writings that had much influ¬ 
ence on public opinion in the latter part of the eighteenth cen¬ 
tury in the United States. In writings of this class the authors 
endeavored to give explanations of the significance of political 
movements or to give directions for carrying on established 
policies or to argue in favor of completely changing policies. 
The purpose was didactic; the authors aimed to instruct the 
young nation. Such essays were written to be read in silence 
and perhaps often reread. The essays of The Federalist, for 
instance, belong to this class of essays. On the other hand, the 
"First Bunker Hill Oration,” though in a broad sense in¬ 
cluded in the form of writing called essay, belongs to a limited 
division of the essay called the oration. (See Introduction, 
pp. xlii-xliii.) Orations are first spoken, and then if they have 
what is called literary style (see p. liv, topic 18), and if they 
derive lasting interest from their speaker or their subject or 
their occasion, they may be preserved to be read by persons 
who were not present at the time of their delivery. The pur¬ 
pose of writings of this class is not so much to give instruction 


264 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


as to inspire emotions on great themes; the aim is at the heart 
rather than at the head. Other examples of this kind of writing 
are the orations of Cicero, besides those of Webster especially 
referred to on pages xxxi-xxxiii. 

Since the purpose of the two works is different, the methods 
of approach to an understanding and appreciation of them ought 
to be different. The Washington address should first be read 
to one’s self, without pauses over details. The reader should 
aim to find out at his first reading what advice in general Wash¬ 
ington gave to his people on retiring from the presidency. 
Then at the second reading words can be examined, topical out¬ 
lines can be made of particular paragraphs and of the advice 
pertaining to domestic and to foreign affairs, and the formal 
style of Washington as a representative of eighteenth century 
American essayists can be made an object of study. Then, if 
there is time for a final reading, the character of Washington 
as revealed by his address can be noted. The first reading of 
the Webster on the contrary, ought to be oral. The reader 
should go by himself, or select a small appreciative audience of 
two or three, and read through the oration without interruption, 
putting into the reading all the enthusiasm that the orator im¬ 
parts to him and being stirred to patriotic appreciation of the 
significance of Bunker Hill. If the words seem to the student, 
at this first reading, fairly to glow, so much the better. The 
second reading, to be done slowly and to one’s self, aims to fix 
in the mind of the student the contents of the oration and the 
details of language and style. The reader will find it hard to 
remember the different points of the oration, and, if he finds it 
necessary to know them, will have to make a topical outline and 
learn the points by rote. A final reading, if there is time for 
it, will give a general view of the oration, and will impress 
upon the reader the personality of the orator as revealed by 
his oration. 

Washington’s Address. The First Appearance. The circum¬ 
stances of the composition and the first publication of the " Fare¬ 
well Address ” are given in detail on pages xx-xxiv. Students 


WASHINGTON’S FAREWELL ADDRESS 265 

generally seem much interested to know that several of Wash¬ 
ington’s friends helped him in the preparation of the address, 
that the address was not spoken at all, and that an original 
manuscript of it is preserved in the Lenox Library, New York. 
On pages 47 and 48 there is a discussion of the text of the essay. 

The Contents. On page liii among the topics and questions 
on the address there is a list of headings that Hamilton thought 
ought to be treated in an address such as that which Washington 
proposed to issue: 

(a) The Union as the rock of their salvation. 

(J?) Fitness of the parts of the Union for each other. 

( c ) The cherishing of the actual government. 

( d ) Morals, religion, industry, commerce, economy. 

(e) The cherishing of good faith, justice, and peace with all 
other nations. 

(/) A rule to have as little connection as possible with foreign 
nations. 

Which of these points were actually included in Washington’s 
essay, and what others, if any, were added ? A biographer has 
felt that because of the priceless advice that Washington gave 
in the address, it is the "richest heritage that has come down 
to us from the Fathers of the Republic.” If this were so, the 
address would have to be considered as a more Valuable inher¬ 
itance for us than the Declaration of Independence and the Con¬ 
stitution. Should you so rank it ? What three leading sentiments 
did Washington wish to impress upon the American people ? 

Construction and Style. Washington’s essay is written in the 
formal, elaborated, balanced prose style popular in the middle 
of the eighteenth century because of the great influence of 
Samuel Johnson on his contemporaries. At the end of the cen¬ 
tury, when writers in England were beginning to break away 
from this style in favor of a more direct and natural style, Wash¬ 
ington and other political writers of the United States were still 
devoted to the stiff Johnsonian fashion of writing. (See topic 11, 
p. liii.) Regarding the construction of sentences and the use of 
words, see notes on "Not unconscious” (p. 2, line 19); "Here, 


266 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


perhaps I ought to stop” (p. 3, line 26); ''sentiments” (p. 3, 
line 30); "Palladium ” (p. 4, line 24); "any appellation ” (p. 5, 
line 2); "digested by common councils ” (p. 8, line 34); "avoid¬ 
ing ... to encroach”(p. 11, line 20); "sparingly”(p. 13, line 2); 
"The Nation” (p. 14, line 7); "neither seeking nor granting” 
(p. 17, line 7); "them” (p. 18, line 10); "Sanctioned” (p. 18, 
line 13). From consideration of all of these it will be perceived 
that, in the niceties of syntax and rhetorical construction, Wash¬ 
ington’s style is less accurate than that deemed good by the 
purists of to-day. Notes on the construction of paragraphs are 
based on page 4, line 8 ; page 4, line 31; page 5, line 1 o ; page 6, 
line 5 ; page 10, line 1; and page 14, line 3. 

Webster’s Oration. The Audience. In order to appreciate the 
oration it is well to know something about the audience. On 
pages xxxviii-xl a full account will be found of the audience 
and of the ceremonies at the laying of the comer stone of the 
Bunker Hill monument, June 17, 1825. 

The Contents. In the ceremonies on that occasion, Webster’s 
speech was scheduled to be the most prominent feature because 
of his long-established reputation for oratorical power and his 
national influence as a statesman. For a statement of the theme 
and for a synopsis of the oration, see pages xliii-xlv. Criticize 
the following topical outline : 

1. Comparative importance of the event commemorated. 

2. Aim of the society in building the monument. 

3. Abstract of happenings since the battle. 

4. Address to soldiers. 

5. The effect of the battle. 

6. Address to Lafayette. 

7. Character of the present age. 

8. Our duties as citizens of the foremost republican nation. 

Topics on the contents are those numbered 2, 3, 4, and 5 on 
page liii, and 8 on page liv. The oration has been called a suc¬ 
cession of brilliant fragments. Does this appear to you to be a 
fair characterization of its contents? As Webster assumes in 
his hearers a full knowledge of the events of the battle of Bunker 



WASHINGTON’S FAREWELL ADDRESS 267 

Hill, many readers will welcome the narrative of the battle that 
has been given by the editor on pages xlvi-lii. 

Construction and Style. Are the characteristics of true elo¬ 
quence as explained by Webster on pages xxxii-xxxiii to be 
found in his own "First Bunker Hill Oration”? For a discus¬ 
sion of the style of Webster, see pages xlii-xliii. For the use of 
figurative language, see page 27, line 32, page 30, line 13, and the 
Notes. Comments on diction, sentence structure, subjunctive 
forms, and paragraph construction are frequent in the Notes. 
Questions on the style are given on pages liii-liv. From the 
general discussion of the style and the particular points ex¬ 
plained or referred to in the Notes, the student should be able 
to form a satisfactorily clear idea of what it is that makes 
Webster’s style distinctive and his oration enduring. Compare 
with the famous " Reply to Hayne.” 

Washington’s Life and Work. Which do you consider the 
more interesting, Washington’s early life, or his life after 1775 ? 
Was Washington an educated man ? What mythical stories 
about Washington’s boyhood are familiar to you ? An account 
of Washington’s life and work is given on pages v-xix. Since 
the essay with which we are particularly concerned is political 
in character, greatest emphasis in the biography is laid on Wash¬ 
ington’s life and work as a statesman. Compare the biography 
of Washington in the American Statesmen Series. 

Webster’s Life and Work. What is there that is specially sig¬ 
nificant in Webster’s school and college life ? How did he first 
make his mark in the world ? What is his most celebrated law 
case ? Name some special features of his career as a statesman. 
What were his most striking characteristics as a man ? What 
are some of his great commemorative speeches ? How does 
his oratory compare with that of Abraham Lincoln, Patrick 
Henry, Wendell Phillips, or any other noted orator with whose 
work you are at all acquainted? The life of Webster, with 
particular emphasis on his work as a great public speaker, is 
told at some length on pages xxv-xxxviii. Compare the biogra¬ 
phy of Webster in the American Statesmen Series. 


268 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


CARLYLE’S ESSAY ON BURNS 

Introduction. No pupil can be expected to form an intelligent 
opinion of this essay unless he knows several of Burns’s poems. 
He can find a choice group of thirty-five of these in the Standard 
English Classics volume entitled " Representative Poems of 
Robert Burns, with Carlyle’s Essay,” and the references in the 
following paragraph — including the poems named — are to this 
volume. 

"Representative Poems of Robert Burns.” Teachers who are 
timid about reading Bums aloud should remember that the Scot¬ 
tish dialect, instead of being a foreign language, is merely the 
northern dialect of English. If they will plunge in, determined to 
bring out the music of the poetry and fortified by the assurance 
that they need not be overprecise (see Pronunciation, p. 87), they 
will do a real service to the boys and girls of to-day. If they are 
unable to muster sufficient courage to read the more difficult 
poems, they may select a few of the easiest and share with some 
of the pupils the pleasure of reading these. It would be a pity 
for any one to graduate from a high school without enjoying the 
charm of "To a Mountain Daisy,” "The Banks of the Devon,” 
" Bonnie Doon,” " Flow Gently, Sweet Afton,” " Ae Fond Kiss,” 
" Highland Mary,” "John Anderson, my Jo,” the vigor of " Scots 
Wha Hae,” and the popular power of "A Man’s a Man for a’ 
That.” Young people are quick to appreciate even a fair read¬ 
ing of " The Cotter’s Saturday Night,” " Rantin Rovin Robin,” 
and "To a Mouse,” and cannot help responding to the poet’s 
apparent success in getting the point of view of man, beast, or 
demon (p. 39). The continuous narrative formed by the intro¬ 
duction to the poems gives pupils the necessary facts of Burns’s 
life and work so quickly that the teacher need do little more than 
read the various poems aloud sympathetically. Enjoyment will 
be sure to follow, and, in all probability, enough discussion to go 
far toward enabling the class to form a clear, just, and compre¬ 
hensive conception of the man and his work. None of them 
should fail to see that not to know Bums is to miss a good deal. 


CARLYLE’S ESSAY ON BURNS 269 

Before reading Carlyle, however, the class should note the 
most significant facts in the " Outline of the Life of Burns ” 
(pp. i-vi), 1 — such, for example, as answer these questions: 
How many Ayrshire homes did Burns have? What do you 
know about Ayr ? What relieved the twelve gloomy years at 
Mount Oliphant ? What prompted Bums to write his first song ? 
What did he accomplish during the next seven years at Lochlea ? 
What happened at Mossgiel ? What is best worth remembering 
about the first winter in Edinburgh ? the second winter ? his 
farm at Ellisland and his duties as exciseman ? his life at Dum¬ 
fries? Explain the statement on page vi that "his real work 
had to be done incidentally.” 

An introduction to Carlyle may be gained by noting the 
answer to the question raised in " Burns and Carlyle ” (pp. xi- 
xv )> 2 —Why should Carlyle have written an account of Burns ? 

The Essay. In 1828 John Gibson Lockhart, afterward famous 
as the biographer of his father-in-law, Sir Walter Scott, published 
"The Life of Robert Burns.” The event led Carlyle to pay his 
respects to the half-dozen narratives of Burns’s life already 
written, and to make this contribution of his own to the subject 
in the Edinburgh Review . 

Those who wish to make a more careful study of the poet’s 
life and work than has been outlined are referred to the list of 
Reference Books on pages 82-83. The attention of teachers 
and advanced students is directed to the brief note on William 
Wallace’s four volumes (p. 83). 

The Argument and the Incidents. Introduction (pp. 1-5 of 
the Essay). Does Carlyle’s opening sentence seem to you to be 
true ? Can you see, without reading further, how it applies to 
Burns? Are Carlyle’s illustrations wisely chosen? Can you 
give others that tend to prove or disprove his statements ? Does 
the opinion at the top of page 2 concerning the character of 
Bums seem' reasonable ? AreL the illustrations apposite ? Can 
you add others? What, according to Carlyle, constitutes a 

1 Pages xi-xvi in the edition of the essay without the poems. 

2 Pages xxi-xxv in the edition of the essay without the poems. 



270 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


perfect biography? (See pp. 4-5.) Do you know of any that 
closely approaches such perfection ? 

Burns as Poet and Man (pp. 5-10). Do you know of any 
other prodigy who has been treated by the world much as Burns 
was ? Compare Burns with Chatterton, Johnson, Keats, Shelley, 
and others, to note similarities and differences. How does Burns 
rank to-day among the poets and the great men of the eighteenth 
century? (P. 5, lines 33 and following.) Who were some of 
these contemporaries ? How can it be said that Burns did much ? 
In considering the circumstances under which he wrote, compare 
him with two or three other literary men. (See p. 6, lines 8-11, 
2 5—31; p. 7, lines 7-10.) Should criticism be a " cold business ” 
in the case of Bums ? Can you say of any great writer that he 
interests you chiefly as a man, not as a writer ? (See p. 7, lines 
29-30.) What do you think of Carlyle’s references to Napoleon, 
and of his estimate of a true poet? (P. 8.) Has the power 
referred to on page 8, line 27, ever been given to others ? Do 
you know of any writer who has ever shown equal sympathy 
for nature or for man ? How does Burns differ from Words¬ 
worth in these ways? Explain fully page 10, lines 25-27. 

The following topics may be used for discussions or themes: 

1. My interest in Shakespeare and Burns — the men. 

2. Walter Scott and Robert Burns (character sketches). 

3. Robert Burns and Robert Louis Stevenson (character sketches). 

4. Milton and Burns (a contrast in educational opportunities). 

Burns's Writings ( pp. 10-38). What led Carlyle to conclude 
that there must be some rare excellence in Burns’s poems ? 
What did he find that excellence to be ? What did he find to be 
the cause of it ? Why, according to Carlyle, is it hard for poets 
to write from sight and actual experience ? (See p. 12, line 34, to 
p. 13, line 9.) Just what does Carlyle mean by a sincere writer ? 
(Read very carefully p. 13, line 24, to p. 14, line 9.), What poets 
do you know well enough to have an opinion of the sincerity of 
their writings ? What prose writers ? What men of action ? 

Note the care with which Carlyle distinguishes " certain of 
his Letters ” from those "to trusted friends ” (p. 15, lines 19 ff.). 



CARLYLE’S ESSAY ON BURNS 


271 


Can you mention any well-known letters that were written in a 
style that is " simple, vigorous, expressive, sometimes even beau¬ 
tiful ”? (See Hanson’s "English Composition,” pp; 77 ff., Ginn 
and Company.) 

The following topics may be useful for themes or discussions: 

1. Poetry that is enjoyed by the ** natural class ” of readers (p. 11, 
line 23). 

2. Whittier’s sincerity as a poet. (How many of the criticisms on 
p. 12 apply to him? See also the study of "Snow-Bound.”) 

3. A sincere writer of prose. 

4. A sincere poet. 

5. Lincoln’s sincerity as a writer. 

What should we remember about Burns’s choice of subjects ? 
Do you know of any writers to whom Carlyle’s statements on 
page 15, lines 28 ff., would apply ? of any who did not need "a 
sermon on the duty of staying at home ” ? Are you sufficiently 
familiar with Homer to know whether the test applied to him 
on page 16, lines 20-24, is a good one to use in discriminating 
between what is literature and what is not ? Do you really like 
any poets who have the kind of feeling and vision mentioned on 
page 16, lines 25-26 ? Do you include in this class any living 
poets, — say Kipling ? Does the paragraph beginning on line 30 
help you to define a "poet”? 

These subjects for discussions or themes may prove suggestive : 

1. The choice of subjects (a) for poetry, ( b) for prose, in the mag¬ 
azines of the day. 

2. The choice of subjects for modern novels. 

3. A true poet. 

4. A provincial writer. 

5. A cosmopolitan writer. 

6. The sentence beginning, " Let but the true poet ” (p. 19, line 13). 

Name two or three poems that illustrate Burns’s tender 
strength. Does Carlyle help you understand the word " graphic ” ? 
(See p. 20, line 9, to p. 21, line 27.) Give additional graphic pas¬ 
sages from Burns’s poems. Do you agree with Carlyle’s esti¬ 
mate of the "clearness and minute fidelity ” of the "Auld Mare ” ? 
(See p. 21, lines 27 ff.) 


272 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Explain fully "the intellectual gift of Burns is fine as well as 
strong.” (See pp. 23-27.) Is Carlyle’s conception of a "truly 
poetical endowment” (p. 23, line 22) a new one to you? Do 
you know of any poets who have such an endowment ? Note 
carefully what Carlyle says of the poems of affection, of indig¬ 
nation, of patriotism, of humor and pathos. Which of the illus¬ 
trations cited makes the strongest appeal to you ? 

What in brief does Carlyle consider the peculiar excellences 
of Burns’s Songs ? Why does he think that Burns’s chief influ¬ 
ence as an author will be found to depend on them ? What does 
he say of Burns’s influence on the literature of Scotland ? 

Themes may be written on these subjects: 

1. Justify some of Carlyle’s comments on the songs by references 
to stanzas and verses. 

2. Discuss the truth of Fletcher’s aphorism (p. 34, line 27). 

Burns the Man (pp. 38-58). Do you agree with the estimate 
of Burns’s "acted” works on page 38, lines 30 ff.? with the 
opening sentence in the next paragraph ? Is Carlyle fair in the 
sentence beginning on page 40, line 30 ? What do you consider 
Burns’s chief blessings while under his father’s roof? (See 
pp. 41-42.) What was Carlyle’s opinion of Burns’s father? 

In the next paragraph does Carlyle speak as if circumstances 
beyond the poet’s control hurried his life tragedy toward its 
close? Is such light as that referred to on page 45, line 30, 
ever introduced by writers of fiction to accentuate the gloom 
of the hero’s final downfall ? Is this true of " Macbeth ” ? of 
"La peau de chagrin,” "Un menage de garqon,” and other 
of Balzac’s novels ? 

Whose observations on the Edinburgh visit are the more inter¬ 
esting to you, — Lockhart’s (pp. 46-47) or Scott’s (pp. 47-49)? 
Why ? How does Carlyle sum up the good and the bad effects 
of the visit on Burns? (See pp. 50-51.) 

Did it seem as if Burns himself was to decide the next im¬ 
portant question in his life ? (See p. 51, lines 19 ff.) What influ¬ 
ence, according to Carlyle, did the " patrons of genius ” have in 


CARLYLE’S ESSAY ON BURNS 


273 


determining the matter? What accident "hastened but did not 
originate ” his worst distresses ? (See p. 54, lines 12 ff.) Explain 
fully. What music was in his discords ? What does Carlyle 
mean by the "crisis” of Burns’s life? 

Conclusion (pp. 58-70). What, in brief, are Carlyle’s com¬ 
ments on the feeling that much might have been done for 
Burns ? Where does he think the blame of Burns’s failure lies ? 
Do you agree with the reasoning on page 62, lines 10-35, anc * 
on page 64 ? Can you add to the illustrations given on page 64, 
lines 1-17 ? Before agreeing with page 65, line 15, read the 
note on that line on page 78. Do you find in the paragraph 
beginning page 65, line 24, any new thoughts in regard to poetry 
or the culture of a poet ? Can you name any one else besides 
Burns who was "born a poet”? (P. 66, line 3.) 

What lesson does Carlyle find in the careers of Bums and 
Byron ? (See p. 68.) What high ideal does he hold up before 
a great and true poet ? (See pp. 68-69.) What comment does 
Carlyle make on Bums’s moral character ? on the way in which 
the world usually judges such a man ? Do you consider the 
closing paragraph fair to all concerned? At this point reread 
and discuss the paragraph beginning on page 35, line 28. 

These subjects may serve for themes or discussions: 

1. Seeking for contentment. (See p. 40, lines 12 ff.) 

2. "Thin delusions and foolish toys . . . brothers.” (P. 56, lines 
15-16.) 

3. Can you account for the popularity of Burns’s poems? 

4. Do you consider Burns’s life a failure ? 

Construction and Style. The topical outline used in the pre¬ 
ceding section may be of assistance in discussing the unity, 
coherence, and emphasis of the essay as a whole. An easier 
exercise will be the finding of good connecting links between 
paragraphs: for example, page 6, line 2 4; page 8, line 2 2; page 11,, 
line 31; page 19, line 15 ; page 20, line 16. Pupils may be en¬ 
couraged to choose half a dozen paragraphs for study. The last 
one (p. 70) and a few others should appeal to all, if teacher and 


274 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


pupils read and reread them slowly and thoughtfully, pointing out 
evident excellences. During the search for whole paragraphs, 
pupils are sure to find sentences that deserve special study. In¬ 
cidentally it will be noticed that the special excellence of some of 
these sentences is due wholly or in part to the figurative lan¬ 
guage. (See p. 6, lines 14 ff.; p. 7, lines 12-20 ; p. 34, lines 2-3; 
p. 54, lines i6ff.; and p. 70.) The frankness of page 7, lines 2off., 
the appreciative exclamations on page 9, the buoyant exagger¬ 
ation on page 43, lines 6 ff., and the charm of the sentence on 
page 58, lines 6 ff., are typical illustrations of what pupils should 
be able to see; and their attention should be drawn to a few 
instances in which the specific word is forcible,—"lynx,” p. 6, 
line 34; "palace” and "hut,” p. 11, line 27; "mud-bath,” p. 43, 
line 16; "pudding,” p. 51, line 6, that goes so well with "praise.” 

Carlyle’s Life and Work. In the "Outline of the Life of 
Carlyle” (pp. vii-x) 1 what is said about his parents ? his educa¬ 
tion ? the choice of his life work ? his friend Edward Irving ? 
his year at" Hoddam Hill ” ? Edinburgh? Mrs. Carlyle ? Jeffrey? 
Goethe ? Craigenputtock ? his life in London ? his " History of 
Frederick II ” ? the death of his wife ? the last years of the 
venerable Sage of Chelsea ? 

Is there any evidence in the essay that Carlyle had some of 
the fine qualities he attributes to Burns,— sincerity, clearness 
of sight, a certain rugged worth and sympathy ? 


EMERSON’S ESSAYS 

Introduction. Matthew Arnold said in his essay on Emerson, 
"As Wordsworth’s poetry is, in my judgment, the most impor¬ 
tant work done in verse, in our language, during the present 
century, so Emerson’s 'Essays’ are, I think, the most impor¬ 
tant work done in prose.” This high opinion Arnold held, not 
because he thought Emerson a great philosopher or a great 
prose writer, but because of Emerson’s unfailing cheerfulness, 
hopefulness, and serenity. The teacher will do well to insist 

1 Pages xvii-xx in the edition of the essay without the poems. 


EMERSON’S ESSAYS 


275 


that the pupil read Emerson’s essays in that spirit, as exhorta¬ 
tions to the sense of freedom and personal worth in man. It is 
entirely possible for the teacher to show the inadequacy of 
Emerson’s knowledge of many t>f the subjects that he treated; 
but that is a point that should not be insisted on with young 
students; and in all dealing with Emerson one should never 
lose sight of his high personal qualities. 

The essays are, in spite of the name, rather sermons than 
essays, in that they are less interested in stating facts and im¬ 
pressions than in exhorting and stimulating the reader to a 
general state of belief and conduct. This they do, not as in the 
case of many sermons, by stimulating the fears of the hearer 
or by argument from theological bases, but rather by appealing 
to the sense of hope and of personal value; and in this respect 
nobody is better than Emerson. 

Emerson wrote for men and women rather than for boys 
and girls. Yet with the aid of the teacher his appeal to youth 
may be made a powerful one. In reading him, it is particularly 
important for teacher and pupils to interchange ideas freely. 
Some questions the class will ask, and the teacher, from his 
larger experience of life and his wider reading, will answer. 
Many other questions will occur to the teacher alone and he 
alone can furnish the replies. Pages that the student by himself 
finds hopelessly unattractive become not only luminous but in¬ 
spiring as a result of the teacher’s clear explanations and apt 
illustrations. 

The Occasion. The student, by referring to Emerson’s life, 
should note the occasion of his various volumes of essays. All 
his works, with the exception of the poems, and possibly " Eng¬ 
lish Traits,” come under this category; they were addresses 
delivered and essays published at different times and were col¬ 
lected into volumes : V Nature ” (1836); " Essays, First Series ” 
(1841); "Essays,Second Series”(1844)Representative Men” 
(1850); "The Conduct of Life ” (i860); " Society and Solitude ” 
(1870); "Letters and Social Aims” (1876). Each of these 
volumes contains a dozen or a score of separate titles, as 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


276 

"History,” "Self-Reliance,” "The Poet,” "Fate,” "Domestic 
Life,” "Imagination,” etc. From boyhood Emerson kept note¬ 
books in which he jotted down his thoughts as they occurred 
to him. When the time came for the composition of a lecture, 
he would collect and arrange such of his notes as bore most 
closely on his subject, and these he would later work over into 
permanent essay form. 

The Material. The teacher and the pupils, working together, 
may make a brief summary of one of the better-known essays, 
as "Self-Reliance,” "Friendship,” "The American Scholar,” 
"Compensation.” For example, in "Friendship,” Emerson, 
after saying, by way of introduction, that the capacity for friend¬ 
ship, like self-reliance, is a natural gift, which we are likely to 
lose in the passage of years, goes on to discuss the ideal friend¬ 
ship under what amounts to three main headings or theses: 

1. Three elements go to make up the ideal friendship,— 
sincerity, tenderness, and magnanimity: one must be kind, true, 
and great of mind. 

2. The perfect friendship is a rare thing; it is hardly to be 
experienced between more than two persons, and it requires 
great delicacy of feeling on both sides. Indeed, the perfect 
friendship is nearer to dreams than to reality. 

3. We do well, however, to approach it as nearly as we may, 
though, as we commonly experience it, friendship is an unfair 
bargain, since it gives one more than the other. The highest 
friendship is "entireness, a total magnanimity and trust.” It 
claims everything and grants everything. 

The following subjects are suitable for discussion and theme 
writing: 

1. State the gist, in a single sentence, of each of several of 
Emerson’s essays. 

2. Summarize briefly these same essays. 

3. What is Emerson’s theory of compensation? of art? of man¬ 
ners? of spiritual laws? etc. 

4. Do you note the recurrence of the same idea frequently in 
any one essay? 


EMERSON’S ESSAYS 


2 77 

5. What ideas are common to, say, "Compensation,” "Self- 
Reliance,” "Friendship,” "The American Scholar,” "The Conduct 
of Life,” "Art,” "The Poet”? 

6. Make a classification of the essays according to the titles (dis¬ 
carding those of the collected volumes, which are merely historical), 
and note whether this classification by titles corresponds to the actual 
contents of the essays. 

7. Name any essays in which the titles might more exactly stand 
for the contents. 

8. Which essays seem to you most important? State the reasons 
for your opinion. 

9. What should you say of the value of such apothegms as "A 
foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds,” or "To be great 
is to be misunderstood ” ? Do these square with your own obser¬ 
vation ? Comment on other phrases that have struck you. 

10. Compare the subjects with those chosen by Bacon, Addison, 
Lamb, and Stevenson. Whose do Emerson’s most resemble ? 

Construction and Style. From what has been said regarding 
Emerson’s method of composing his essays, it is clear that they 
have little regular structure, and cannot be very regularly out¬ 
lined. They are chiefly agglomerations of sentences; they spring 
from the sentence; each one represents about as many sen¬ 
tences as Emerson found it convenient to put in the space allotted 
by the occasion. The unity that they possess is, on the whole, 
of a spiritual sort; they make you feel one prevailing way about 
the author or about the subject that he is treating, or about your¬ 
self. This general observation may be brought out by discus¬ 
sion or themes on such subjects as the following: 

1. Point out some vigorous phrases in one of the essays. Do 
such phrases and sentences dominate the essay? 

2. To what degree are the essays a series of sentences and asser¬ 
tions regarding the subject with which Emerson is dealing? 

3. Could you transfer any of these sentences from one paragraph 
to another, or from one essay to another ? See whether this is pos¬ 
sible in any instance. 

4. Analyze any well-known paragraph of the essays, as that on 
consistency in " Self-Reliance.” How does Emerson get to that para¬ 
graph? How from it to the next? Suggest any other place in the 
essay where the paragraph might have come. 


27 8 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


5. What can you say of the vigor and definiteness of the wording 
in the essays ? Give examples to illustrate the points you make. 

6. To what does Emerson appeal in "Friendship,” in "Self- 
Reliance,” in "The American Scholar,” that gives unity to these 
essays ? 

Emerson’s Life and Work. The chief biography of Emerson 
is Cabot’s, and there are also shorter accounts in the American 
Men of Letters Series, by Oliver Wendell Holmes; the Great 
Writers Series, by Richard Garnett; and the Beacon Biog¬ 
raphies, by Frank B. Sanborn. The Emerson-Carlyle cor¬ 
respondence, edited by Charles Eliot Norton, and Emerson’s 
journals, recently published, should also be read if one would 
thoroughly understand the spirit that Emerson displayed in the 
severe afflictions that befell him, — the death of his young wife, 
the loss of his first-born son at the age of five, the insanity of 
his brother after a beginning of great promise, and his own 
never very robust health. 

Emerson was born in Boston, May 25, 1803. For seven gen¬ 
erations his ancestors had been ministers on one side or on 
both, and thus he sprang from the aristocracy of Puritan New 
England. Emerson was a serious boy. He went through Har¬ 
vard with some credit, returning thither, after four years of 
teaching and saving, to study for the ministry. At twenty-six he 
had become minister of a Unitarian church in Boston. The 
liberal creed of the church proved not broad enough for him, 
and after three years he felt obliged to resign his office. There¬ 
after he preached in many pulpits, but never again accepted 
one of his own. In a large sense he was always a preacher; 
but it was not in his nature to be hampered by other people’s 
beliefs. Self-reliance, the right and the power of the individual 
to think and believe and act for himself, is the beginning and 
the end of Emerson’s gospel. Three years of travel abroad had 
the effect, usual with strong men, of broadening his mind with¬ 
out weakening his will. The most important single fact of this 
experience was his meeting with Carlyle, and the beginning of 
their lifelong friendship. On his return to America, Emerson 


SESAME AND LILIES 


279 


went to live in Concord, and at once took up the double career 
of lecturer**and writer, which he was to follow for half a century. 
It was in Boston, in 1835, that he gave his first successful lectures, 
and his first book —" Nature ” — was published in the following 
year. The tone and style of this book were new and strange. 
Carlyle was one of the few who felt its meaning and its promise. 
The two series of " Essays ” which followed found a larger 
hearing; but it was still chiefly through his public speaking that 
Emerson’s influence increased. "Transcendentalism” — that 
search for the truth which underlies appearances — was con¬ 
nected with his name. His life passed quietly, and was admirable 
beyond the ordinary lot of men of genius. He died April 27, 1882. 


SESAME AND LILIES 

Introduction. Pupils of very meager equipment will find 
Ruskin attractive if the teacher is skillful in adapting the work 
to their capacity. If they are to understand his philosophical 
reflections on life and society, they will need the help of a mature 
reader who will generously give them the benefit of his experi¬ 
ence. Part I of the Introduction, on Ruskin’s aims, and Part II, 
on his life, especially the influences that made the man, may be 
used to pave the way for a reading of the essays. 

The interpretative introductions, on pages 3 and 65, summa¬ 
rize the thoughts expressed in the lectures. They should be used 
preferably after the first reading of the lectures, and may be 
made the basis of discussions of Ruskin’s ideas on Reading, 
Education, Kingship, The ideal State, The education of women, 
and Woman’s duties in the home and in the State. After mas¬ 
tering Ruskin’s ideas, one may properly compare his work with 
other famous essays on the same subjects, as J. S. Mill’s 
classic, "The Subjection of Women.” Tennyson’s "Princess” 
may also be introduced, and it would be profitable to read some 
woman poet’s view of the subject. 

The Material. Ruskin’s ideas are extremely important, and 
they are expressed with constant sincerity and eloquence. He 


280 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


is not merely a great stylist; he is also a profoundly earnest 
teacher. There is possibly too much tendency on the part of 
his readers to yield to the " ruddy glow ” of his persuasiveness, 
without striving to master his ideas. Hence the following ques¬ 
tions are important to the understanding of what he has to say: 

Lecture I. What is the subject? Explain the meaning of the sym¬ 
bolic titles " Sesame ” and " Kings’ Treasuries.” Is the theme appro¬ 
priate to the occasion? How does Ruskin feel about the subject? 
What does he say is the popular idea of the object of education? 
What does he regard as the true idea? Explain the popular notion 
of "advancement in life” (p. io).. What motive, according to Rus¬ 
kin, leads people to desire office, and to "get into good society”? 
How does he say we are limited in our choice of friends? How may 
we always be sure of good society? Give Ruskin’s classification of 
books. Illustrate the two main classes. What is his idea of a " Book ” ? 
Why should we devote most of the time that we may have for read¬ 
ing to these true books? Explain "Will you go and gossip with 
your housemaid, or your stable-boy, etc. ? ” (p. 17). Mention the two 
conditions for gaining entrance to this " best society.” In what ways 
must we show our love for great writers ? What should be the atti¬ 
tude of our minds towards a new book? Give a precise explanation 
of the figure based upon gold mining (p. 19). What habit must we 
form in regard to words ? What does Ruskin regard as the real dif¬ 
ference between an educated and an uneducated person? Explain 
the expression "peerage of words” (p. 20). What does he mean by 
" ‘ groundlion ’ cloaks ” among words ? (P. 21.) Show how the English 
language may properly be described as "mongrel in breed.” Why 
does Ruskin advise thorough word study and the learning of the 
Greek alphabet? 

It is wise to use Ruskin’s "word-by-word” study of the passage 
from Milton’s " Lycidas ” (sects. 20-24) in connection with the study 
of that poem. Explain all the Biblical allusions and the figurative 
language in this passage. What is Ruskin’s opinion concerning the 
duties of a bishop ? What ideals of life does he present in section 25 ? 
What is his purpose in the allusions to Shakespeare and Dante in 
this section? (Consult Notes, p. 62.) Explain the Biblical quotation 
at the end of section 26. What advance is next to be made ? (P. 33.) 
Give Ruskin’s comments upon the word "sensation” (p. 33). What 
is his idea of a "vulgar person ” ? How can we come to feel with the 
great writers ? Discriminate between mean and noble curiosity. How 


SESAME AND LILIES 


2&I 

is a company of gentlemen to be distinguished from a mob ? What 
does Ruskin declare to be the great disease of England, and its effect 
on the power to read truly ? What charges does he bring against the 
English nation, and how does he substantiate each? Give the sub¬ 
stance of the thought in sections 39 and 40. What lessons does 
Ruskin see in the drawing of Kirkby Lonsdale Churchyard? in 
the Scythian custom? Who are truly advancing in life? What is 
Ruskin’s ideal of kingship? Give his view concerning war. With 
what hope does he conclude this lecture ? 

Lecture II. When and where was this lecture given ? Discriminate 
Ruskin’s purpose in the two lectures. (For a better understanding of 
the last five lines of section 51, read Milton’s description of death, 
in "Paradise Lost," Book II, and Tennyson’s picture of death, in 
" Gareth and Lynette.”) What, according to Ruskin, is the one true 
kingship? What does he mean by the title "Queens’ Gardens"? 
On what grounds does Ruskin object to the expressions, the "mis¬ 
sion ’’ and the "rights ” of woman? (P. 71.) What had he declared 
in the other lecture to be the first use of education ? How does he 
apply that principle in discussing the present question ? What asser¬ 
tion does Ruskin make concerning Shakespeare’s heroes and heroines ? 
How is the catastrophe of every play of Shakespeare caused? What 
does he say, finally, is Shakespeare’s testimony to the position and 
character of woman? Scott’s? Dante’s? Express in your own lan¬ 
guage the thought of Rossetti’s poem quoted by Ruskin. Learn as 
much as possible of the Greek heroines mentioned. What other 
poets who have idealized women does Ruskin refer to? In what 
poems? Give the substance of sections 64-66. What does he say 
about the superiority of one sex to the other? What is Ruskin’s 
idea of the peculiar office of man and woman respectively ? his ideal 
of the home? What must be the character of woman if she is to 
approximate Ruskin’s ideal of her? What is the second question 
which he is to consider? What does Ruskin regard as fundamental 
in the education of girls? Make a careful study of the poem here 
quoted, to discover Wordsworth’s ideal in the education of woman. 
What opinions are expressed in section 72? What science would 
Ruskin have woman avoid ? Why ? Give his notions as to the studies 
to be pursued by the girl and the boy, and as to the difference in 
method. Give his views on novel reading; on turning a girl loose 
in a good library; on teachers. What inference does he draw from 
the life of Joan of Arc ? Explain fully the allusions in sections 84-85, 
and give his inference therefrom. What is the last question that he 


282 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


considers? What does he say of woman’s duty in the state? Give 
his idea as to the desire for power. Explain the real meaning of 
"lord” and "lady”; of "king” and "queen.” In the concluding 
sections, how does he develop his real meaning in the title " Queens’ 
Gardens ”? Interpret the final section. 

Construction and Style. Does Ruskin’s writing seem, like 
Emerson’s, to be a series of stimulating observations, expressive 
of a prevailing high mood, or is it, in the manner of Burke, a 
reasoned argument from facts to conclusion ? The earnest stu¬ 
dent will draw up an outline of the ideas, and should point out 
some of the most impressive passages, showing their importance 
in the essay. Are Ruskin’s climaxes, climaxes of logical deduc¬ 
tion, or climaxes of eloquence, enthusiasm, and style ? The 
teacher will enjoy helping pupils find melodious passages like 
those referred to on page xxiv. A comparison with some of 
Longfellow’s picturesque prose and portions of Professor 
Palmer’s rhythmic prose translation of the Odyssey should 
lead up to a profitable discussion of the definition of poetry 
given in the second paragraph. 

Do you agree with the reason given on page xxiv for Rus¬ 
kin’s precise use of words ? Do you consider his language per¬ 
suasive ? Illustrate. Can you point out passages that have " a 
rich ornamentation and a chaste imagery ” ? 

What formed Ruskin’s style ? Read to the class a paragraph 
which has "sublime simplicity of diction.” Explain and illus¬ 
trate the criticism of Ruskin’s power of description on page 
xxv. Comment on Ruskin’s statement concerning the virtues 
of language (p. xxv). 

Ruskin’s Life and Work. The following topics, based on the 
Introduction, are suggested for themes or discussions. Those 
who wish to understand Ruskin better than they can from read¬ 
ing the Introduction are referred to " Praeterita ” and Colling- 
wood’s "Life of Ruskin.” (See also p. xxix and the list of his 
collected, works on pp. xxvii-xxviii.) 

i. Ruskin’s fortunate childhood; his father and mother; his 
summer tours. 


ENGLISH HUMORISTS 283 

2. Ruskin, the lover of art and nature; the teacher; the philan¬ 
thropist. 

3. The significance of i860 in Ruskin’s career. 

4. St. George’s Guild. 

5. Ruskin’s views on work. 

6. Ruskin’s ideals in life. (See on the page preceding the Intro¬ 
duction the quotations from some of his other works.) 

ENGLISH HUMORISTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURY 

Introduction. A fair amount of time should be taken for the 
study of the "English Humorists.” Thackeray’s personality is 
attractive, and furthermore the book is valuable as a study of 
the very important eighteenth century. The sketches have 
some continuity, in that they deal with men within a limited 
period of time, several of whom were well acquainted with one 
another. As we know from "Henry Esmond” (pp. 69-72), 
the field was a favorite one with Thackeray. 

The introductory part of the book should first be read for 
the sake of Thackeray’s personality, since a student will thereby 
be more easily able to recognize and appreciate the characteristic 
touches that follow. With regard to the times, an interesting 
and supplementary study may be made by comparing Thack¬ 
eray’s picture with several books, in the Standard English 
Classics, which are contemporary with the times; for Thackeray 
got his facts from some of these very books. The " De Cover- 
ley Papers,” "The Deserted Village,” and "The Vicar of Wake¬ 
field ” belong to this class, to which should be added works from 
any of the writers with whom Thackeray is dealing, — Swift’s 
" Gulliver’s Travels ” and " Journal to Stella,” selections from the 
poems of Gay and Prior, Fielding’s "Tom Jones,” Sterne’s 
Sentimental Journey,” etc. Modern books that may be named 
are Irving’s " Life of Goldsmith,” Macaulay’s " Essay on Addh 
son,” and Austin Dobson’s " Eighteenth Century Vignettes.” 
The great standard work on the whole period is Lecky’s "His¬ 
tory of England in the Eighteenth Century,” and Leslie Stephen’s 


284 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


" English Thought in the Eighteenth Century ” may be profit¬ 
ably referred to. Green’s " Short History of the English People ” 
contains a clear account of the times. 

The Material. For the most part, the material of all these 
essays has to do with (i) the facts of the lives and the achieve¬ 
ments of the twelve men whom Thackeray is treating and 
(2) his opinion about the value of these lives, characters, and 
careers, and his sentiments with regard to them. These two 
elements, in the intelligent reading of critical essays, should be 
kept fairly distinct. As to the first,— the facts,— the follow¬ 
ing subjects for themes or class discussion may be helpful with 
regard to particular men: 

1. A short account of the life of Swift, Addison, or any of the 
other authors. 

2. Goldsmith’s experiences on the Continent; Pope at Twicken¬ 
ham ; Swift as Dean of St. Patrick’s; Hogarth’s way of collecting 
material for a picture, etc. 

3. What does Thackeray tell of the temperament of Congreve, 
Swift, Sterne, and others ? What of their early training ? 

4. Point out important epochs in the lives of Fielding, Goldsmith, 
Steele, and others. 

Taking the essays as a whole, the following subjects, from 
the point of view of the facts, may prove suggestive for class 
discussion or for themes: 

1. The coffeehouses. 

2. Vauxhall, Ranelagh, pleasure resorts of the time. (See refer¬ 
ences in the Notes.) 

3. Government pensions and the patrons of men of letters in the 
eighteenth century. 

4. The Literary Club and its members, Johnson, Garrick, Boswell, 
and others. (The several members of the " club ” might be assigned 
to different members of the class.) 

5. Some eighteenth-century standards and ideals. Compare with 
those of our own time and also with the preceding times, as Eliza¬ 
bethan England. 

6. Eighteenth-century costume. See reproductions of originals by 
Kneller, Reynolds, Gainsborough, Hogarth, and others, in the one- 
cent Perry pictures or the Harper black-and-white prints. 


ENGLISH HUMORISTS 


285 


7. Compare the extent to which biographical facts are used in the 
lives of the several " Humorists.” Why, for example, is more said 
of the acts of Swift than of those of Congreve? 

With regard to Thackeray’s opinions and sentiments, the 
following may help: 

1. Who of the " Humorists ” are evidently Thackeray’s favorites? 
What is the reason for his admiration in each case (as the robust 
manliness of Fielding, the kindness and gentleness of Goldsmith, etc.)? 

2. To what does Thackeray object in Sterne, Pope, and others? 

3. Whom does Thackeray regard as the most important men 
among the " Humorists ”? What reasons does he give? 

4. To what extent does Thackeray take sides, as with Pope and 
Sterne ? 

5. Compare Thackeray’s opinion of Addison and Steele with that 
of Macaulay in the "Essay on Addison.” Do the writers differ in 
their facts, their interpretation of the facts, or in their final opinion 
of these writers? Which view seems to be the sounder, and why? 

Construction and Style. The student, after mastering the 
important facts about the essays and the chief characteristics of 
Thackeray as revealed in them, should note the more important 
methods that Thackeray employs. A good way is to take any 
one of the essays and observe in general how Thackeray mar¬ 
shals his facts. Then a comparison with other essays in the 
" English Humorists ” will reveal what is usual and charac¬ 
teristic. Good subjects for discussion are the different ways in 
which characters are introduced, the varieties of opening, the 
differences in the endings, the places where biographical facts 
most abound, where Thackeray introduces his own views and 
criticisms, etc. 

As to style, the reader will note that Thackeray’s language is 
plain and simple, but that he is nevertheless persuasive in a 
variety of ways: he wishes us to believe in Sterne almost 
against our convictions; he accentuates the faults of Steele, but 
so as to arouse our sympathy; he wishes us to admire and 
love Goldsmith. 


286 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


The teacher should point out all through the book Thack¬ 
eray’s use of picturesque, concrete words, — "the ambrosial 
wig,” his face "tarnished with drink,” "he was always alone — 
alone and gnashing in the darkness,” etc. So also the conclu¬ 
sions may be noted, where Thackeray frequently becomes more 
eloquent and where his style is not merely simple but also harmo¬ 
nious, as in the Swift ("silence and utter night,” " an immense 
genius,” " an awful downfall and ruin,” "like an empire falling,” 
etc.) or the Addison ("the great, deep calm,” "a happy and 
spotless name,” etc.), or the conclusion of the Fielding. 

The following subjects may prove suggestive: 

1. Make a collection of lively concrete words and apt phrases. 

2. Mention some passages where you might say, " That is the real 
Thackeray.” 

3. Collect various epithets applied to different persons and study 
them for their aptness and expressiveness. 

4. Note any heightening of style or increase of eloquence as the 
essays progress. 

Thackeray’s Life and Work. On page 72 of the Study of 
" Henry Esmond ” are some considerations regarding Thack¬ 
eray’s work as a novelist, and the discussion of " Esmond ” 
shows Thackeray’s sympathy with the eighteenth century. After 
reading a sketch of Thackeray’s life (see " English Humorists ” 
and " Heniy Esmond ” in this series) a student may properly try 
to tell how the great writer was qualified for treating so success¬ 
fully the life of the eighteenth century. The qualities of the 
author should be noted, his ideas of good and bad, the trend of 
his sympathies, and one may well discuss Thackeray’s alleged 
cynicism in the light of these essays. Referring to them a stu¬ 
dent may verify or refute the account of Thackeray’s attitude 
and character found in the Introduction. 


SELECTIONS FROM HUXLEY 


287 


SELECTIONS FROM HUXLEY 

Introduction. In the Introduction may be found a brief 
sketch of the condition of scientific activity in England. One 
point to be emphasized is that the scientists of the mid-century 
period were fighting for recognition. Huxley’s fighting spirit 
(he was called Darwin’s " bulldog ”) may have been, as he said 
(p. 3), inherited from his father, but it illustrates to a greater 
or less degree the feelings of the scientists of the period. 

It is possible that this spirit may have led Huxley to overstate 
his position. He was pleading his cause before the people (note 
his address, "A Liberal Education ”); and it is possible that, as 
an advocate usually presents his side of a case to the best advan¬ 
tage, he understated the position of his opponents. From what 
we know of Huxley’s life it would appear that he valued highly 
the study of foreign languages, and in general the benefits of a 
classical education. 

Not much is included here of the great battle concerning the 
Darwinian theory of evolution, in which Huxley took a prom¬ 
inent part. Controversy ran high; many believed that the 
foundations of religion would be undermined. The establish¬ 
ment in 1869 of the Metaphysical Society, in which Huxley 
and other leaders of the New Reformation met in friendly dis¬ 
cussion with prominent opponents, did much to alleviate the 
bitterness of the controversy. 

Huxley is here presented as a great man, a great worker, a 
great scientist, — not that he followed any accepted body of 
scientific teaching, but that he was a searcher after truth. Stu¬ 
dents may like to compare his autobiography with Franklin’s; 
they may like to read some of his American addresses and some 
of his letters in his "Life and Letters.” 

* ’Autobiography. ’ ’ This is written in a quaint, humorous style. 
The humor of the bee story, of his boyish preaching, of his 
black eye, of his reception by Sir William Burnett, of the soft 
plank, will appeal to all. His reference to an able teacher de¬ 
serves emphasis. Note the change in style as Huxley approaches 


288 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


what he considers the serious part of this sketch, — the summing- 
up of his life work (the paragraphs beginning "The last thing,” 
pp. 11-12). 

The following subjects are good for short themes or talks: 

1. Scholarships in colleges compared with aid from distinguished 
societies (Royal Society, Carnegie Foundation, etc.). 

2. " The interviewer who pervades our age.” 

3. Was Huxley’s opinion of oratory correct? 

"On Improving Natural Knowledge.” This address is based 
upon a study of contrasts,— 1666 and 1866. What has made 
the improvement in man’s condition? Two striking incidents 
— the Plague and the Fire — furnish the starting point. (See 
pp. 13-15.) How were they then regarded? how now? What 
has brought about this change of opinion ? 

The Royal Society, an agent in the progress of science, is 
introduced like the hero of a novel. Observe the structure 
of the address. It is interesting to recall that it was this Royal 
Society that published Huxley’s first important paper (" On the 
Anatomy and the Affinities of the Family of the Medusae,” 1849), 
and that Huxley later became secretary, and then president, of 
this association, finally winning the Copley and the Darwin 
medals. Note the paragraph on page 17, "The fact is,” etc., 
that carries the argument along another step. Well worth study¬ 
ing are the paragraphs on page 21 beginning "However” and 
"Natural Knowledge is.” Read these with the paragraphs im¬ 
mediately following, and observe the development of the argu¬ 
ment. At the end of the address recall the Plague and the 
Fire, and review the argument. 

The following topics are suggested for themes or discussions: 

1. Plagues and fires of to-day. 

2. State aid to scientific societies. 

3. Modern safeguards to health. 

"A Liberal Education.” Tell what you know from the "Auto¬ 
biography ” and other sources about Huxley’s own education. 
Show how he was qualified to speak upon this subject. In 1870 


SELECTIONS FROM HUXLEY 


289 


Huxley wrote, " Education should be free and equal; the busi¬ 
ness of school boards being the provision of a ladder reaching 
from the gutter to the university, along which every child in the 
three kingdoms should have the chance of climbing as far as he 
is fit to go.” 

Comment on "What I mean by Education.” (See pp. 33- 
34.) What do you mean by education? (See p. 35.) What is 
meant by compulsory education enforced by nature ? What is 
the distinction between artificial and natural education ? (See 
P- 3 S-) 

Does the argument on page 42, showing the necessity of a 
sound education for the English people, apply to this country ? 
If one may judge from the address of the people to their sons, 
what studies would Huxley recommend ? What is said about 
respect for the classics ? What would be the effect of the com¬ 
parison between paleontology and the classics upon a popular 
audience ? 

Discuss the comparison of German and English universities. 
(See pp. 46-51.) Observe the reference to Napoleon (p. 50), 
—"la carribre ouverte,” etc.; that great leader believed that 
every soldier carried in his knapsack a field-marshaks baton; 
that success would come to the worthy. Study the conclusion. 
Compare the situation of to-day. 

These topics are suggested for themes and talks: 

1. Is education the great panacea for human troubles? 

2. What is an educated man ? 

3. Is the government responsible for "hard times”? 

4. Courses of study in a high school. 

"A Piece of Chalk.” The chalk country here described was of 
course well known to a British audience. It may be well to 
recall something of the geological formation of the earth, to¬ 
gether with some of the natural phenomena familiar to most 
readers, — deposits of coal, iron, salt; the changing of river 
beds and coast lines; the wearing away of Niagara Falls; 
earthquakes, etc. 


290 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Here again there is strong contrast, — the small beginnings, 
the piece of chalk; and the great conclusion, the history of the 
formation of the world. Note the composition of chalk (pp. 55- 
56). Continue the argument, and show that the chalk found 
upon land and the particles on the sea bottom are identical. 
The conclusion follows that chalk is the dried mud of an ancient 
deep sea. (See pp. 60-61.) What other reasons are there for 
this conclusion? It follows, logically, that certain countries 
(p. 64) were once covered by a deep sea. How long did it take 
this chalk to accumulate ? (See p. 66.) Changes in the earth’s 
surface produced consequent changes in climatic conditions, e^c. 
(See p. 69.) Note the discussion of the antiquity of earth, man, 
and animals. (See pp. 70-73.) 

Conclusion. The argument is drawn to a close. How have 
the changes mentioned come about? (See pp. 74-76.) Explain 
"A small beginning has led us to a great ending.” What is the 
final word ? 

These topics are suggested for themes or talks: 

1. A piece of coal. 

2. How does climate influence mankind? 

3. The microscope as man’s assistant. 

4. The effect of this address upon the audience. 

5. Various theories as to the formation of the earth. 


LIST OF BOOKS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY 
READING 


This list of books, which does not aim to be exhaustive in 
any sense, presents, in the classes adopted in the preceding 
parts of the book, certain suggestions for additional reading 
which any teacher of English may like to do, and some of which 
he may advise students to do at their leisure. Only a few books 
from each author are suggested, and these are the ones likely to 
be most interesting. Some foreign books in easily available 
translations are added. Few books are included that are not 
accessible in public libraries or in the excellent collections now 
issued by many publishers, such as Dutton’s " Everyman’s 
Library,” Dent’s " Temple Classics ” and "Temple Dramatists,” 
the Tauchnitz Editions, the Bohn Libraries, Ginn’s " Athenaeum 
Press Series,” Heath’s " Belles Lettres Series,” Maynard’s 
" English Classic Series,” Houghton Mifflin’s " Riverside Liter¬ 
ature Series,” Holt’s "English Readings for Schools,” and the 
Macmillan Company’s "Pocket American and English Clas¬ 
sics.” Attention may also be called to the many new editions of 
novelists, as Scott, Dickens, Thackeray, Meredith, Trollope, 
Thomas Hardy, and others, on thin India paper in flexible 
covers,—a very convenient form for travelers who read. Ward’s 
" English Poets ” (4 vols., Macmillan Company), Palgrave’s. 
" Golden Treasury of the Best Songs and Lyrical Poems ” 
(Series 1 and Series 2), and Quiller-Couch’s " Oxford Book of 
English Verse ” (The Clarendon Press) are standard collections 
of English poetry in handy form. As a rule, poems printed in 
the " Golden Treasury ,” and authors and titles appearing in the 
body of this book are not included in the following list, which is 
purposely brief. 


291 


292 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


NOVELS AND ROMANCES 

Austen, Jane. Northanger Abbey; Pride and Prejudice ; Emma; 
Mansfield Park. 

Balzac, Honore de. (Translated by Wormeley, Marriage, Waring, 
Dowson, and others.) The Vicar of Tours; Father Goriot; 
Eugdnie Grandet; The Wild Ass’s Skin; Cousin Pons; Lost 
Illusions; Modeste Mignon; The Quest of the Absolute. 
Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. 

Bulwer-Lytton, Edward G. E. The Last Days of Pompeii; 

My Novel; Last of the Barons; Rienzi. 

Cable, George Washington. Old Creole Days; The Grandissimes. 
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de. (Translated by Jarvis, Ormsby, 
Shelton, and others.) Don Quixote. 

Clemens, Samuel Langhorne (" Mark Twain ”). The Adventures 
of Tom Sawyer; Huckleberry Finn. 

Collins, William Wilkie. The Moonstone; The Woman in 
White. 

Crawford, Francis Marion. Saracinesca. 

Daudet, Alphonse. (Translated by Lee and others.) Tartarin of 
Tarascon ; Tartarin on the Alps. 

Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe; Captain Singleton; Memoirs 
of a Cavalier. 

Dumas, Alexandre. (Translated by Williams and others.) The 
Three Musketeers; Twenty Years After; The Black Tulip; 
The Count of Monte-Cristo. 

Edgeworth, Maria. Castle Rackrent; The Absentee. 

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. (Translated by T. Carlyle.) 

Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship. 

Hardy, Thomas. Far from the Madding Crowd; The Return of 
the Native; Under the Greenwood Tree. 

Harte, Francis Bret. The Luck of Roaring Camp, and Other 
Tales. 

Howells, William Dean. A Modern Instance; A Hazard of 
New Fortunes. * 

Hugo, Victor. (Translated by Wilbour and others.) Les Misd- 
rables; Toilers of the Sea; Ninety-three. 

James, Henry. Roderick Hudson; Daisy Miller; The Europeans; 

The American; The Portrait of a Lady. 

Johnson, Samuel. Rasselas. 


LIST OF BOOKS 


293 


Kingsley, Charles. Westward Ho; Alton Locke; Hypatia. 

Kipling, Rudyard. Plain Tales from the Hills; Captains Coura¬ 
geous. 

Lesage, Alain-Rene. (Translated by Smollett and others.) Gil 
Bias. 

Marryat, Frederick. Mr. Midshipman Easy. 

Meredith, George. Richard Feverel; Rhoda Fleming; Evan 
Harrington ; Beauchamp’s Career; The Egoist. 

Reade, Charles. Peg Woffington ; The Cloister and the Hearth. 

Sand, George. (Translated by Shaw, Robinson, and others.) Con- 
suelo; Little Fadette. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin; Oldtown Folks. 

Turgenieff, Ivan. (Translated by Garnett, Hapgood, and others.) 
Smoke; Annals of a Sportsman. 

Tolstoi, Leo N. (Translated by Hapgood, Dole, and others.) Child¬ 
hood ; War and Peace. 

Trollope, Anthony. The Warden; Barchester Towers. 


POEMS OF ALL CLASSES 

Ariosto, Ludovico. (Translated by Rose, Harington, Hoole, and 
others.) Orlando Furioso. 

Byron, George G. N., Lord. The Bride of Abydos; The Giaour; 
Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage; The Vision of Judgment; Matthew 
Arnold’s Selected Poems of Byron. * 

Camoens, Luiz de. (Translated by Burton, Aubertin, and others.) 
The Lusiads; Sonnets in " Dante, Petrarch, and Camoens,” 
translated by Richard Garnett. 

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales, particularly The 
Knightes Tale, The Nonne Preestes Tale, The Prioresses Tale, 
The Clerkes Tale. 

Clough, Arthur Hugh. Poems. 

Cowper, William. The Task. 

Crabbe, George. The Village. 

Dante Alighieri. (Translated in prose by C. E. Norton; in verse 
by H. W. Longfellow.) The Divine Comedy. 

Dryden, John. Absalom and Achitophel; Mac Flecknoe; Alexan¬ 
der’s Feast; Palamon and Arcite. 

Fitzgerald, Edward. Translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar 
Khayyam. 


294 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. (Translated by Frothingham 
and others.) Hermann and Dorothea. 

Keats, John. The Eve of St. Agnes; Lamia; Isabella; Hyperion. 
Lanier, Sidney. Poems. 

Morris, William. The Earthly Paradise; Jason. 

Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Alastor; Adonais. 

Sill, Edward Rowland. Poems. 

Tasso, Torquato. (Translated by Fairfax, Hoole, and others.) 
Jerusalem Delivered. 

Thomson, James. The Seasons; The Castle of Indolence. 
Wordsworth, William. Poems, selected by Matthew Arnold 
(Golden Treasury Series). 


DRAMA 

jEschylus. (Translated by Morshead, Verrall, Plumptre, and others.) 
The Agamemnon trilogy. 

Aristophanes. (Translated by Frere, Rogers, and others.) The 
Clouds. 

Beaumont and Fletcher. The Knight of the Burning Pestle; 

Philaster; The Faithful Shepherdess. 

Byron, Lord. Manfred. 

Browning, Robert. In a Balcony; A Blot in the ’Scutcheon. 
Calderon de la Barca, Pedro. (Translated by Fitzgerald and 
others.) Life is a Dream. 

Dekker, Thomas. The Shoemaker’s Holiday. 

Dryden, John. All for Love; Don Sebastian. 

Euripides. (Translated by Murray, Way, and others.) Medea; Ion; 

Iphigenia in Aulis '; Iphigenia in Tauris; Hippolytus. 

Ford, John. The Broken Heart. 

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. (Translated by B. Taylor, 
Blackie, Scott, and others.) Faust; Gotz of the Iron Hand. 
Goldsmith, Oliver. She Stoops to Conquer. 

Ibsen, Henrik. (Translated by William Archer.) A Doll’s House; 

An Enemy of the People; Hedda Gabler. 

Jonson, Ben. Every Man out of His Humour; Volpone, or the 
Fox; Bartholomew Fair. 

Lyly, John. Alexander and Campaspe. 

Marlowe, Christopher. Tamburlaine; Dr. Faustus; Edward II. 
Massinger, Philip. A New Way to Pay Old Debts. 


LIST OF BOOKS 


295 


Moliere, Jean Baptiste Poquelin. (Translated by Wall, Page, 
Van Laun, and others.) The Affected Misses; The Miser; The 
Misanthrope; The Learned Women; Tartufe. 

Otway, Thomas. Venice Preserved. 

Pinero, Arthur Wing. Trelawney of the Wells. 

Robertson, Thomas William. Caste. 

Schiller, J. C. Friedrich von. (Translated by S. T. Coleridge 
and others.) Wallenstein; William Tell. 

Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Prometheus Unbound. 

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley. The Rivals; The School for 
Scandal. 

Sophocles. (Translated by Plumptre, Jebb, Way, and others.) 

(Edipus ; Antigone; Philoctetes. 

Webster, John. The Duchess of Malfi. 


NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE PROSE 

Cellini, Benvenuto. Life (various translations). 

De Quincey, Thomas. Joan of Arc; Suspiria de Profundis; The 
English Mail-Coach. 

Gibbon, Edward. Memoirs. 

Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Recollections. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell. The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. 
Landor, Walter Savage. Imaginary Conversations; Pericles 
and Aspasia; The Pentameron. 

Mill, John Stuart. Autobiography. 

Plutarch. Lives. (Translated by Dryden, Clough’s edition.) 
Swift, Jonathan. The Battle of the Books; A Tale of a Tub; 
Gulliver’s Travels. 

TkOLLOPE, Anthony. Autobiography. 

Walton, Isaak. The Complete Angler. 

White, Gilbert. Natural History of Selborne. 

EXPOSITORY AND ARGUMENTATIVE PROSE 

Arnold, Matthew. Essays in Criticism; On Translating Homer; 

Culture and Anarchy. 

Bagehot, Walter. Literary Studies. 

Berkeley, George. Alciphron; Dialogues between Hylas and 
Philonus. 


THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 


296 

Browne, Sir Thomas. Religio Medici. 

Burke, Edmund. Speech on American Taxation; Letter to the 
Sheriffs of Bristol; Reflections on the Revolution in France. 
Carlyle, Thomas. Sartor Resartus; The French Revolution; 

Heroes and Hero-Worship. 

Cowper, Gray, Walpole, and Others. Letters. 

Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species. 

Fiske, John. The Critical Period of American History. 

Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 
HarKison, Frederick. The Choice of Books. 

Hazlitt, William. The Spirit of the Age. 

Johnson, Samuel. Lives of Cowley, Milton, Dryden, Addison, 
Swift, and Pope. 

Locke, John. On the Conduct of the.Understanding. 

Macaulay, Thomas B. History of England; Essays. 

Montaigne, Michel de. (Translated by Florio, Cotton, and others.) 
Essays. 

Mill, John Stuart. Liberty; On the Subjection of Women. 
Milton, John. Areopagitica. 

Newman, John Henry. The Idea of a University. 

Plato. (Translated by Jowett and others.) Dialogues, particularly. 
The Apology; Crito; Phaedo; The Republic; The Symposium ; 
Gorgias; Phaedrus. 

Ruskin, John. Modern Painters; The Seven Lamps of Architecture; 
Aratra Pentelici; Unto This Last; A Crown of Wild Olive; 
Munera Pulveris; Fors Clavigera. 

Stevenson, Robert Louis. Memories and Portraits, and other 
Essays. 

Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. (Translated by 
Jowett.) 



INDEX OF TITLES 


/Eneid, 143 Mazeppa, 101 

As You Like It, 157 Merchant of Venice, 177 

Childe Harold, 103 Midsummer Night’s Dream, 183 

Comus, 186 Odyssey, 137, 142 

Conciliation with the Colonies, v^Oregon Trail, 216 
248 Paradise Lost, 93 

Courtship of Miles Standish, 118 Pilgrim’s Progress, 190 
Cranford, 73 Prisoner of Chillon, 101 

David Copperfield, 62 / Quentin Durward, 50 

Deserted Village, 230 Rape of the Lock, 97 

Elegy Written in a Country Raven, 244 


Churchyard, 241 
Emerson’s Essays, 274 
English Humorists of the Eight 
eenth Century, 283 
Essay on Burns, 268 
Essays of Elia, 201 
Faerie Queene, 91 
Henry Esmond, 69 
v' House of the Seven Gables, 54 
Idylls of the King, 130 
Iliad, 137, 141 
II Penseroso, 239 
Inland Voyage, 225 
y Ivanhoe, 47 

Julius Caesar, 161 * 

King Henry the Fifth, 171 
Lady of the Lake, 11 r 
L’Allegro, 239 
/ Last of the Mohicans, 59 
✓Days of Ancient Rome, 121 
Life of Goldsmith, 200 
Life of Johnson, 210 
Lord Clive, 208 
Lorna Doone, 81 
Lycidas, 237 
y/ Macbeth, 150 


Representative Poems of Robert 
Burns, 268 

Revolt of the Tartars, 205 
Rime of the Ancient Mariner, 
106 

Selections from Browning, 133 
Selections from Byron, 100 
Selections from Huxley, 287 
• y Sesame and Lilies, 279 
Silas Marner, 76 
Sir Reger de Coverley Papers, 194 
/ Sketch Book, 197 
■Snow-Bound, 233 
/Sohrab and Rustum, 126 
Tale of Two Cities, 66 
Travels with a Donkey, 225 
Treasure Island, 86 
Twelfth Night, 167 
/Vicar of Wakefield, 43 
Vision of Sir Launfal, 114 
Walden, 220 
Warren Hastings, 208 
Washington’s Farewell Address, 
263 

Webster’s First Bunker Hill Ora¬ 
tion, 263 


297 


INDEX OF AUTHORS 


Addison, Joseph, 194 
Arnold, Matthew, 126 
Blackmore, Richard D., 81 
Browning, Robert, 133 
Bunyan, John, 190 
Burke, Edmund, 248 
Burns, Robert, 268 
Byron, Lord, 100, 101, 103 
Carlyle, Thomas, 268 
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 106 
Cooper, James Fenimore, 59 
De Quincey, Thomas, 205 
Dickens, Charles, 62, 66 
Eliot, George, 76 
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 274 
Gaskell, Elizabeth C., 73 
Goldsmith, Oliver, 43, 230 
Gray, Thomas, 241 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 54 
Homer, 137, 141, 142 
Huxley, Thomas Henry, 287 
Irving, Washington, 197, 200 
Lamb, Charles, 201 


Longfellow, Henry W., t 18 
Lowell, James Russell, 114 
Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 
121, 208, 210 

Milton, John, 93, 186, 237, 239 
Parkman, Francis, 216 
Poe, Edgar Allan, 244 
Pope, Alexander, 97 
Ruskin, John, 279 
Scott, Sir Walter, 47, 50, 111 
Shakespeare, William, 150 ,157, 
161, 167, 171, 177, 183 
Spenser, Edmund, 91 
Steele, Richard, 194 
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 86, 225 
Tennyson, Alfred, 130 
Thackeray, William Makepeace, 
69, 283 

Thoreau, Henry D., 220 
Washington, George, 263 
Webster, Daniel, 263 
Whittier, John Greenleaf, 233 
Virgil, 143 


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